دانلود کتاب Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease, 1e

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Book Copyright Professor Bongani Mbawethu Mayosi Professor Diana (Dinny) Lennon List of Contributors Preface Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease 1. Epidemiology, Risk Factors, Burden and Cost of Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease INTRODUCTION EPIDEMIOLOGY OF ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER AND RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE Incidence of Acute Rheumatic Fever Prevalence of Rheumatic Heart Disease Heart Failure due to Rheumatic Heart Disease Excess Mortality from Rheumatic Heart Disease RISK FACTORS FOR ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER AND RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE Pathogen and Host Factors that Lead to Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease Factors specific to the streptococcal organism Host demographics Host genetic factors Host oral health status Host nutritional status Social and Environmental Conditions Household crowding, including bed sharing Household resources, including washing and laundry Housing conditions, including tenure, damp, and cold Healthcare utilization and health literacy Summary of Risk and Protective Factors for Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease MEASURES OF GLOBAL DISEASE BURDEN ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES OF ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER AND RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE REFERENCES 2. Pathogenesis of Acute Rheumatic Fever INTRODUCTION OVERVIEW OF THE PATHOGENESIS OF ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER MEDIATORS OF AUTOIMMUNE REACTIONS MOLECULAR MIMICRY CARDITIS AND RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE T CELLS AND RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE SYDENHAM CHOREA GENETIC SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER REFERENCES 3. Clinical Evaluation and Diagnosis of Acute Rheumatic Fever INTRODUCTION CLINICAL EVALUATION OF ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER Risk Factors for Acute Rheumatic Fever CLINICAL FEATURES OF ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER Major Manifestations Joint symptoms (arthritis and arthralgia) Carditis Chorea Erythema Marginatum Subcutaneous Nodules Minor Manifestations Fever Arthralgia Elevated Acute Phase Reactants First-Degree Heart Block OTHER CLINICAL MANIFESTATIONS OF ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER DIAGNOSTIC INVESTIGATIONS FOR ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER Laboratory Evidence of a Preceding Group A Streptococcus Infection Throat Culture Rapid Antigen Detection Testing Streptococcal Serology Chest X-ray Echocardiography Diagnosis of Rheumatic Carditis by Echocardiography DIAGNOSIS OF ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER RATIONALE FOR 2015 REVISION Possible Acute Rheumatic Fever Rheumatic Fever Recurrences INTERNATIONAL DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA (AUSTRALIA, NEW ZEALAND, BRAZIL, INDIA)3,4,78,79 DIFFERENTIAL DIAGNOSIS OF ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER FUTURE RESEARCH DIRECTIONS Working toward Universal Diagnostic Criteria The Search for a Molecular Signature in the Diagnosis of Acute Rheumatic Fever More Appropriate Ways of Diagnosing Acute Rheumatic Fever in the 21st Century REFERENCES 4. Management of Acute Rheumatic Fever INTRODUCTION ESTABLISHING THE DIAGNOSIS ERADICATION OF THE GROUP A STREPTOCOCCUS GENERAL MEASURES AND SYMPTOMATIC RELIEF Fever Bed Rest and Diet MAJOR MANIFESTATIONS Arthritis and/or Arthralgia Carditis and Heart Failure Carditis Advanced atrioventricular block Heart failure Heart-failure medications Heart-failure medications Antiinflammatory medications Antiinflammatory medications Heart valve surgery Heart valve surgery Sydenham Chorea DISCHARGE PROTOCOL Discharge Criteria Notification Patient and Family Education Prophylaxis Infective endocarditis Outpatient Follow-up REFERENCES 5. Clinical Evaluation and Diagnosis of Rheumatic Heart Disease INTRODUCTION EPIDEMIOLOGY OF RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA FOR RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE Diagnosis of Chronic Rheumatic Heart Disease in Individuals with a History of Acute Rheumatic Fever Diagnosis of Rheumatic Heart Disease in Individuals Without a History of Acute Rheumatic Fever CLINICAL ASSESSMENT AND FINDINGS Innocent Cardiac Murmurs Innocent murmurs in the pediatric population Pathological Murmurs in the Pediatric Population Pathological Murmurs in the Adult Population Mitral Regurgitation Clinical symptoms Clinical signs: mild-to-moderate mitral regurgitation Clinical signs: moderate-to-severe mitral regurgitation Electrocardiogram Chest X-ray Mitral Stenosis Clinical symptoms Clinical signs: mild to moderate Clinical signs: moderate to severe Electrocardiogram Chest X-ray Mixed Mitral Valve Disease Clinical symptoms Clinical signs: moderate to severe Electrocardiogram Chest X-ray Aortic Regurgitation Clinical symptoms Clinical signs: mild-to-moderate aortic regurgitation Clinical signs: moderate-to-severe aortic regurgitation Electrocardiogram Chest X-ray Aortic Stenosis Clinical symptoms Clinical signs: mild to moderate Clinical signs: moderate to severe Electrocardiogram Chest X-ray Tricuspid Regurgitation Clinical symptoms Clinical signs: mild to moderate Clinical signs: moderate to severe Electrocardiogram Chest X-ray Pulmonary Regurgitation Clinical symptoms Clinical signs: mild to moderate Clinical signs: moderate to severe ECG Chest X-ray Multivalve Rheumatic Heart Disease Clinical symptoms Clinical signs: severe multivalve disease ECG Chest X-ray ECHOCARDIOGRAPHY IN RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE Grading the Severity of Valve Disease Using Echocardiography Mitral Valve Disease Echocardiography of isolated mitral regurgitation Echocardiographic findings in isolated mitral stenosis Echocardiography in mixed mitral valve disease Aortic Valve Disease Tricuspid Valve Disease Pulmonary Valve Disease Evaluation of Prosthetic Valves Monitoring Disease Progression and Resolution Guide to Nature and Timing of Cardiosurgical Intervention 3D Echocardiography and Rheumatic Valve Disease OTHER IMAGING AND DIAGNOSTIC MODALITIES Cardiac Catheterization Computed Tomography Cardiac Magnetic Resonance Imaging EVALUATION OF HEART FAILURE Clinical Investigations for Chronic Heart Failure Full blood count Electrolytes and renal function testing Troponin Liver function testing and clotting profile Inflammatory markers Antibody testing Biomarkers for heart failure Exercise Stress Testing DISEASE PROGRESSION AND NATURAL HISTORY FUTURE DIRECTIONS REFERENCES 6. Medical Management of Rheumatic Heart Disease INTRODUCTION PRINCIPLES OF MANAGEMENT OF RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE MEDICAL MANAGEMENT OF CHRONIC HEART FAILURE IN RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE Overview of Heart Failure Treatment Heart Failure Managment (HFrEF) General management Pharmacological therapy MEDICAL MANAGEMENT OF INDIVIDUAL VALVE LESIONS Chronic Mitral Regurgitation Natural History and Pathophysiology of Mitral Regurgitation Mitral Regurgitation Medical Management Indications for Cardiac Surgery for Mitral Regurgitation Serial evaluation Serial evaluation MITRAL STENOSIS Natural History and Pathophysiology of Mitral Stenosis Medical Management of Mitral Stenosis Indications for Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Commissurotomy and Cardiac Surgery Serial evaluation CHRONIC AORTIC REGURGITATION Natural History and Pathophysiology of Aortic Regurgitation Medical Management of Chronic Aortic Regurgitation Indications for Cardiac Surgery in Chronic Aortic Regurgitation Serial evaluation AORTIC STENOSIS Natural History and Pathophysiology of Aortic Stenosis Medical Management of Aortic Stenosis Indications for Surgery in Aortic Stenosis Transcatheter Aortic Valve Implantation Serial evaluation OTHER CHRONIC RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE ENTITIES Multivalve Disease and Mixed Valve Disease Tricuspid Valve Disease Prosthetic Valve Patients Mechanical valves Bioprosthetic valves GENERAL CARE PRINCIPALS FOR THE RHD PATIENT Secondary Prevention With Antibiotic Prophylaxis Antithrombotic Therapy in Rheumatic Heart Disease Antithrombotic Therapy for Prosthetic Valves Anticoagulation in Atrial Fibrillation Initiating warfarin therapy Initiating warfarin therapy Anticoagulation for patients in sinus rhythm and who have not had valve surgery Access to oral healthcare Infective Endocarditis Prophylaxis REFERENCES 7. Catheter-Based Evaluation and Treatment of Rheumatic Heart Disease INTRODUCTION INDICATIONS FOR CATHETER-BASED EVALUATION IN THE PATIENT WITH RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE MEASUREMENTS IN THE CATHETERIZATION LABORATORY Basics of Cardiac Catheterization and Pressure Measurement Contour of Normal Pressure Waveforms and Common Artifacts Estimation of Pulmonary Capillary Wedge Pressure Estimation of Cardiac Output HEMODYNAMIC ASSESSMENT OF VALVE FUNCTION Mitral Stenosis The hemodynamic findings of mitral stenosis at cardiac catheterization Quantification of severity of mitral stenosis and calculation of valve area Mitral Regurgitation The hemodynamic findings in rheumatic mitral regurgitation at cardiac catheterization Mixed Mitral Valve Disease Aortic Valve Disease Aortic Stenosis Aortic Regurgitation Tricuspid Valve Disease CATHETHER-BASED INTERVENTIONS IN RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE Mitral Stenosis Percutaneous mitral balloon commissurotomy Indications for Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Commissurotomy Indications for Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Commissurotomy Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Commissurotomy Technique Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Commissurotomy Technique Complications of Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Commissurotomy Complications of Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Commissurotomy Outcomes Following Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Commissurotomy Outcomes Following Percutaneous Mitral Balloon Commissurotomy Interventions in Rheumatic Aortic Valve Disease CONCLUSION REFERENCES 8. Surgical Management of Rheumatic Valvular Heart Disease INTRODUCTION HISTORICAL BACKGROUND ANATOMICAL FEATURES AND CLINICAL SPECTRUM OF SURGICAL RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE Mitral Valve Disease Aortic Valve Disease Tricuspid Valve Disease PREOPERATIVE DIAGNOSTIC WORK-UP Echocardiography—What Are Surgeons Looking for? Mitral valve analysis Aortic valve analysis Tricuspid valve analysis Role of the preoperative three-dimensional and transesophageal echocardiogram Role of the preoperative three-dimensional and transesophageal echocardiogram Left and Right Catheterization—Coronary Angiography New Methods—CT Scan and Magnetic Resonance Imaging INDICATIONS FOR SURGERY AND SURGICAL TECHNIQUES The Young Rheumatic Patient Closed mitral commissurotomy for mitral stenosis Open mitral commissurotomy for mitral stenosis Repair for mitral valve regurgitation Mitral valve replacement Selection of valve prosthesis Selection of valve prosthesis Technique of valve replacement Technique of valve replacement Surgery for aortic valve disease Aortic valve repair Aortic valve repair Aortic valve replacement Aortic valve replacement Tricuspid valve disease Tricuspid regurgitation Tricuspid regurgitation Tricuspid stenosis Tricuspid stenosis Multi valve surgery EARLY AND LONG-TERM OUTCOMES OF RHEUMATIC VALVE SURGERY Perioperative Results Long-Term Outcomes: Repair Versus Replacement Mitral valve Aortic valve How Far Can We Go With Repair? THE ROLE OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS REFERENCES 9. Rheumatic Heart Disease in Pregnancy INTRODUCTION EPIDEMIOLOGY OF RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE IN PREGNANCY MATERNAL CARDIAC PHYSIOLOGY PRECONCEPTION EVALUATION Risk Stratification Mitral Stenosis Aortic Stenosis Mitral and Aortic Regurgitation Tricuspid Regurgitation Mixed Valve Lesions Mitral/Aortic Valve Replacement Bioprosthetic Valves Bioprosthetic Valves Mechanical valves Mechanical valves CLINICAL EVALUATION DURING NORMAL PREGNANCY MANAGEMENT OF RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE IN PREGNANCY Management of Heart Failure in Pregnancy Management of Specific Valve Lesions During and Before Pregnancy Mitral Stenosis Mitral and Aortic Regurgitation Aortic Stenosis Anticoagulation in Pregnancy Anticoagulation for Mechanical Prostheses Vitamin K Antagonists Vitamin K Antagonists Heparins Heparins Emergency Reversal of Anticoagulation Labor and Delivery CONTRACEPTIVE CHOICES IN WOMEN WITH RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE Contraceptive Methods Progestogen-only methods Copper IUD Emergency contraception CONCLUSION REFERENCES 10. Primary Prevention of Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease PRIMORDIAL PREVENTION EFFECTIVENESS OF PRIMARY PREVENTION DIAGNOSIS OF GROUP A STREPTOCOCCAL PHARYNGITIS Streptococcal Antibody Tests TREATMENT OF GROUP A STREPTOCOCCAL PHARYNGITIS Delivery of Benzathine Penicillin G: Barriers and Potential Solutions Safe Administration of Benzathine Penicillin G Future Directions in the Treatment of Group A Streptococcal Infections COST-EFFECTIVENESS OF PRIMARY PREVENTION DELIVERY OF PRIMARY PREVENTION STRATEGIES Population-Based Strategies Health System-Based Strategies CONCLUSION REFERENCES 11. Secondary Prevention of Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease INTRODUCTION Definition of Secondary Prevention Historical Background Evidence of Effectiveness Limitations and Challenges in Delivery of Secondary Prophylaxis PENICILLIN FOR SECONDARY PROPHYLAXIS Penicillins and Pharmacokinetics Penicillin Supply Penicillin Adverse Reactions CLINICAL EVALUATION AND MANAGEMENT OF ANAPHYLAXIS Definition and Diagnosis Management of anaphylaxis Assessment of possible penicillin allergy SECONDARY PROPHYLAXIS RECOMMENDATIONS AND REGIMENS Antibiotic Dosing and Frequency Duration of Secondary Prophylaxis Stopping Secondary Prophylaxis IMPROVING ADHERENCE TO SECONDARY PROPHYLAXIS Reasons for Nonadherence Methods to Support Adherence PROGRAMMATIC APPROACHES TO SECONDARY PROPHYLAXIS DELIVERY INDIVIDUAL APPROACHES TO SECONDARY PROPHYLAXIS DELIVERY REDUCING THE PAIN OF BENZATHINE PENICILLIN G INJECTIONS Procedure for Preparation and Delivery of Benzathine Penicillin G Injection With Lidocaine Addition of 2% lidocaine to benzathine penicillin G pre-filled syringe ADMINISTERING THE INTRAMUSCULAR INJECTION SECONDARY PROPHYLAXIS IN SPECIAL CIRCUMSTANCES Secondary Prophylaxis During Pregnancy Secondary Prophylaxis while Breastfeeding Secondary Prophylaxis while on Oral Contraceptive Secondary Prophylaxis in Anticoagulated Patients REFERENCES 12. Rheumatic Heart Disease Control Programs, Registers, and Access to Care RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE CONTROL PROGRAMS 1900 – 1950s 1950s–2000 2000–2005 2005–2018 Contemporary recommendations for RHD control programs INTRODUCTION TO DISEASE REGISTERS WITH A FOCUS ON RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE Introduction to Registers Issues Specific to Rheumatic Heart Disease Registers ACCESS TO CARE CONCLUSION REFERENCES 13. Echocardiographic Screening for Rheumatic Heart Disease INTRODUCTION THE RATIONALE FOR RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE SCREENING THE EVOLUTION OF RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE SCREENING Terminology Accuracy of Auscultation for Rheumatic Heart Disease Standardization of Echocardiographic Criteria Technical Considerations and Interpretation of the Guidelines CONTRIBUTION OF ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC SCREENING FOR RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE EPIDEMIOLOGY INNOVATIONS IN ECHOCARDIOGRAPHIC SCREENING Screening by Nonexpert Operators Innovative Technologies for Screening Abbreviated Protocols and Agreed Cut-Off Points Training Procedures FUTURE DIRECTIONS AND UNANSWERED QUESTIONS Disease Progression of Latent (Subclinical) Rheumatic Heart Disease Does Identification of Latent Rheumatic Heart Disease Improve Outcomes? Is Echocardiographic Screening Cost-Effective in Low Resource Areas? What Would it Take to Scale-Up Echocardiographic Screening to a National/Global Level? What are the Harms of a Screening Program? What is the Ideal Model/Test Strategy for Echocardiographic Screening? CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES 14. Group A Streptococcus Vaccines INTRODUCTION ISSUES IN GAS VACCINE DEVELOPMENT HISTORY OF GAS VACCINES 21ST CENTURY GAS VACCINE DEVELOPMENT M-protein Vaccines Non-M-protein Vaccines FUTURE DEVELOPMENT ACTIVITIES REFERENCES 15. Awareness, Education, and Advocacy INTRODUCTION BASELINE AWARENESS Community Teachers People and Families Living with Acute Rheumatic Fever and Rheumatic Heart Disease Clinicians Policy Makers and Funders INTERVENTIONS TO IMPROVE AWARENESS MOVING FROM ORGANIC TO STRATEGIC APPROACHES LOCAL AND GLOBAL ADVOCACY EFFORTS Defining Advocacy What Can Be Achieved Through Successful Advocacy in Rheumatic Heart Disease? Moving the Needle WHAT NEXT FOR ACUTE RHEUMATIC FEVER AND RHEUMATIC HEART DISEASE? A FINAL WORD ON THE KEY ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS REFERENCES 16. Complications of Rheumatic Heart Disease and Acute Emergencies INTRODUCTION 1: ACUTE HEART FAILURE Definition and Classification Epidemiology Etiology of Acute Heart Failure Acute rheumatic fever Rheumatic heart disease Evaluation and Management of the Patient With Acute Heart Failure Phase I: Early recognition, treatment, and triage of life-threatening conditions Phase II: Identification and treatment of acute etiologies or relevant triggers of AHF Acute valvular regurgitation Acute valvular regurgitation Acute presentation of chronic disease Acute presentation of chronic disease Prosthetic valve dysfunction (mechanical and bioprosthetic valves) Prosthetic valve dysfunction (mechanical and bioprosthetic valves) Prosthetic valve thrombosis management Prosthetic valve thrombosis management Prosthetic valve stenosis Prosthetic valve stenosis Other prosthetic valve complications Other prosthetic valve complications Pericardial tamponade Pericardial tamponade Tachyarrhythmia in chronic mitral stenosis Tachyarrhythmia in chronic mitral stenosis Advanced heart block Advanced heart block Phase III: Diagnostic work-up to confirm acute heart failure Phase IV: Defining the clinical profile and optimal management strategy Diuretics Diuretics Vasodilators Vasodilators Ongoing management Ongoing management Conclusion 2: INFECTIVE ENDOCARDITIS Introduction Pathophysiology of Infective Endocarditis in Rheumatic Heart Disease Epidemiology of Infective Endocarditis and Rheumatic Heart Disease High income countries Infective Endocarditis in Rheumatic Heart Disease-endemic countries Presenting Clinical Features Examination findings Investigations Laboratory investigations Bacterial pathogen/causative organisms Bacterial pathogen/causative organisms Imaging Echocardiography and newer imaging modalities Diagnostic Criteria Differential Diagnosis Medical Management Principles of antibiotic therapy for infective endocarditis Clinical Course and Complications Stroke/intracranial hemorrhage/neurologic events Other vascular complications Uncontrolled sepsis and persistent bacteremia Cardiac surgical management Cardiac surgical management Prognosis Prevention and Antibiotic Prophylaxis Conclusions 3: OVERANTICOAGULATION AND BLEEDING Introduction Management REFERENCES Index A B C D E F G H I J L M N O P Q R S T U V W