دانلود کتاب An Introduction to Complex Systems: Making Sense of a Changing World

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Preface
Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 Why Complex Systems?
1.2 About This Text
1.3 Complex Systems Concepts
1.4 Understanding the Real World
1.4.1 Ways of Knowing
1.4.2 How Much of the Real World Can We Really Know?
1.4.3 Models as Ways of Knowing
1.4.4 Analogies and Isomorphisms
1.4.5 Decomposability and Reductionism
1.4.6 Holism and the Relationships Between Parts
1.4.7 Determinism and the World as a Machine
1.4.8 Organic Thinking
1.4.9 Repeatability, Refutability, and Predictability
1.4.10 The Relationship Between Randomness and Unpredictability
1.4.11 Repeatability in Adaptive and Non-linear Systems
1.4.12 Refutability and Complex Causal Loops
1.4.13 Tools and Literature That Span Disciplines
1.4.14 Complex Systems and the Computer
1.5 Gatherings and Continued Work
1.5.1 Vienna Circle
1.5.2 The Macy Conferences
1.5.3 The Santa Fe Institute
1.5.4 Group You Could Join
1.6 Questions
1.7 Resources and Further Reading
2 Simple Rules
2.1 Simple Rules: Complex Behavior
2.1.1 Logistic Equation of Population Growth
2.1.2 The Discrete Logistic Equation
2.1.3 Dynamics of the Discrete Logistic Equation
2.2 Cellular Automaton
2.2.1 Conway\'s Game of Life
2.2.2 Wolfram\'s Automaton
2.2.3 The Scientific Process and Abduction
2.3 Many Players
2.3.1 Mobs
2.3.2 Flocking and Schooling
2.3.3 Segregation Model
2.3.4 Video Games and Leaking Buckets
2.4 Implications of Simple Rules and Emergence
2.4.1 Logical Types and Epiphenomenon
2.4.2 Effectual Thinking
2.4.3 Points of View
2.5 Questions
2.6 Resources and Further Reading
3 Non-linear Systems
3.1 Differential Equations
3.1.1 Linear Systems
3.1.2 Non-linear Systems
3.1.3 Numerical Simulations
3.2 The Geometry of One-Dimensional Systems
3.2.1 Classification of Equilibrium Points
3.2.2 Velocity Vectors
3.2.3 Basins of Attractions
3.2.4 Bifurcations
3.2.5 Classification of Bifurcations
3.2.6 Hysteresis
3.3 Two-Dimensional Systems
3.3.1 Phase Space and Trajectories
3.3.2 Nullclines
3.3.3 2D Velocity Vectors
3.3.4 Stability of Equilibrium Points
3.3.5 Basins of Attraction and the Separatrix
3.3.6 Limit Cycles
3.3.7 Bifurcations in 2D Systems
3.3.8 Building and Simplifying Systems
3.4 Three-Dimensional Systems
3.4.1 Chaos in Three-Dimensional Systems
3.4.2 Strange Attractors
3.4.3 Fast-Slow Systems and Bursting
3.5 Implications of Chaos
3.5.1 Predictability of Deterministic Systems
3.5.2 The Robustness of Non-linear Systems
3.5.3 The Arts and Non-linear Dynamics
3.5.4 Metastable Systems
3.5.5 Parallel Trajectories
3.5.6 Free Will as Chaos
3.6 Questions
3.7 Resources and Further Reading
4 Pattern Formation
4.1 Symmetry Breaking
4.1.1 Benard Cells
4.1.2 Ising Model
4.1.3 Artists Breaking Symmetry
4.2 Turing Pattern Formation
4.2.1 Growth and Differentiation
4.2.2 Spirals, Spot, and Stripes
4.3 Limit Cycles as Patterns in Time
4.3.1 Pacemakers and Other Rhythms
4.3.2 Sychronization
4.3.3 Complex Synchronization
4.3.4 Swimming, Walking, and Flying
4.3.5 Delays
4.3.6 Bursts and Queuing
4.3.7 The Simple Machines of Complex Systems
4.4 Fractals as Patterns
4.4.1 The Logistic Equation Revisited
4.4.2 Fractals and Power Laws
4.4.3 Mandelbrot and Fractals in Nature
4.4.4 Strange Attractors as Fractals in Phase Space
4.5 Autocatalytic Systems
4.5.1 The Brusselator
4.5.2 Autocatalytic Memory
4.6 Patterns in Other Spaces
4.6.1 Evolutionary Patterns
4.6.2 The Pattern of ``I\'\'
4.7 Questions
4.8 Resources and Further Reading
5 Networks
5.1 Theory of Networks
5.1.1 Simple Networks and Neighbor Connectivity
5.1.2 Trees and Hierarchies
5.1.3 Properties of Nodes and Edges
5.1.4 Random and Orderly Networks
5.1.5 Six Degrees of Separation
5.1.6 Small-World Networks
5.1.7 Scale-Free Networks
5.1.8 Ecosystems
5.1.9 Gene and Cell Networks
5.2 Adjacency Matrices and Network Measures
5.2.1 Adjacency Matrices
5.2.2 Node Degree and Histograms
5.2.3 Centrality
5.2.4 Pathlength and Diameter
5.2.5 Clustering and Clustering Coefficient
5.2.6 Applications to Small-World Networks
5.2.7 Maintaining Connections and Redundancy
5.2.8 Nested and Overlapping Networks
5.2.9 Business Networks and Innovation
5.3 Scale-Free Networks
5.3.1 Histogram of the Scale-Free Network
5.3.2 Power Laws in Language and Wealth
5.3.3 The Long Tail and the Black Swan
5.3.4 Universality of Scale-Free Distributions
5.4 Growing Networks
5.4.1 L-Systems
5.4.2 Rich Get Richer
5.4.3 Tiling and Pruning
5.4.4 Network Phase Transitions
5.4.5 Structurally Adaptive Networks
5.4.6 The Emergence of Functions
5.4.7 Evolution and Hierarchies
5.4.8 Humans and Technological Becoming
5.5 Questions
5.6 Resources and Further Reading
6 Information Flow
6.1 Information Theory
6.1.1 Probabilities
6.1.2 Bayes\' Law
6.1.3 Shannon\'s Information Theory
6.1.4 Measures of Information
6.1.5 What Can Carry Information
6.2 Applications to Communication, Genes, and Language
6.2.1 Communication and Noise
6.2.2 Genetic Information
6.2.3 Language
6.2.4 Information in Structures
6.3 The Theory of Computing
6.3.1 A Short History of Computing
6.3.2 Other Forms of Computation
6.4 Artificial Intelligence
6.4.1 The Goals of Artificial Intelligence
6.4.2 Creating an AI
6.4.3 The Turing Test
6.5 Meaning as Information Networks
6.5.1 Networks of Information and Models of the World
6.5.2 Consciousness, Mind, Story, and Self
6.6 The Unknowable
6.6.1 Gödel\'s Proof
6.6.2 The Halting Problem and Traveling Salesmen
6.6.3 Quantum Information and Computing
6.6.4 Sending Codes
6.7 Privacy
6.8 Questions
6.9 Resources and Further Reading
7 Thermodynamics of Complex Systems
7.1 Irreversibility and the Origin of Thermodynamics
7.1.1 Entropy
7.1.2 The Molecular Meaning of Temperature
7.1.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
7.1.4 Work on a System
7.1.5 The Second Law of Thermodynamics
7.1.6 Not All Energy Can Do Work
7.1.7 Maxwell\'s Demon
7.1.8 Approaches to Equilibrium
7.1.9 Autocatalytic Reactions (Revisited)
7.1.10 The ``Problem\'\' of Order and Complexity
7.1.11 Semipermeable Barriers and Network Entropy
7.2 Open Systems
7.2.1 The Input of High-Quality Energy
7.2.2 The Dissipation of Low-Quality Energy
7.2.3 System Metabolism
7.2.4 Snowflakes and Crystal Formation
7.2.5 Phase Transitions
7.2.6 Traffic and Second-Order Phase Transitions
7.2.7 Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics
7.2.8 Instability and Patterns Far from Equilibrium
7.2.9 Doing Work on the Environment
7.2.10 Functionally Adaptive Machines
7.3 Structural Adaptation
7.3.1 What Complex Systems Build
7.3.2 Balancing an Energy Budget
7.3.3 Learning
7.3.4 The Discovery and Encoding of New Functions
7.3.5 The Adjacent Possible
7.3.6 Life and Mind
7.4 Questions
7.5 Resources and Further Reading
8 Game Theory
8.1 Zero-Sum Games and Game Trees
8.1.1 Game Trees
8.1.2 Rational Players
8.1.3 Minimax
8.1.4 Emergent and Infinite Game Trees
8.2 Non-Zero-Sum Games
8.2.1 Prisoner\'s Dilemma and Nash Equilibrium
8.2.2 The Ultimatum Game
8.2.3 Other Games
8.2.4 Repeated Games and the Evolution of Cooperation
8.3 Multiple Players
8.3.1 Tragedy of the Commons
8.3.2 Fitness Functions
8.4 Interspecies Interactions
8.4.1 The Red Queen and Ecosystems
8.4.2 Individual or Group Fitness
8.4.3 Symbiosis
8.4.4 The Evolution of Technology, Economies,and Cultures
8.4.5 Diversity
8.4.6 Genetic Algorithms and Evolutionary Computing
8.5 Game Theory in the Real World
8.5.1 Spatial Game Theory and Stereotypes
8.5.2 Bounded Rationality and Intuition
8.5.3 The Origin of Bounded Rationality
8.5.4 Fast and Slow Systems
8.5.5 Emotions and Bounded Rationality
8.5.6 Impossible Spaces
8.5.7 Trust and Further Considerations
8.6 Questions
8.7 Resources and Further Reading
9 Dynamics of Networks
9.1 Network Effects
9.1.1 Diffusion of Innovations
9.1.2 Properties of Innovations and Metcalfe\'s Law
9.1.3 The Network Power of Weak Ties
9.1.4 Inhibition
9.1.5 Network Balance
9.1.6 Spread of Viruses, Rumors and Fashion
9.2 Network Motifs and Functions
9.2.1 Motifs
9.2.2 Networks as Logic Gates
9.2.3 Recombination and Hierarchies
9.2.4 Pathways to Disease
9.2.5 Learning Revisited
9.2.6 Action Networks and Expertice
9.3 Origins and Autopoiesis
9.3.1 The Origin of Complex Systems
9.3.2 Mechanisms of Complexification
9.3.3 Autopoietic Systems
9.3.4 Artificial Life and Viruses
9.3.5 Gaia and Detecting ET
9.4 Questions
9.5 Resources and Further Reading
10 The Edge
10.1 Reaching Criticality
10.1.1 Self-Controlling Order Parameters
10.1.2 Self-Organization of Internal Rules and Constraints
10.1.3 Tuned Chaos
10.1.4 Power Laws and 1/f Noise
10.1.5 Tensegrity
10.2 Self-Organized Criticality
10.2.1 Sandpiles and Avalanches
10.2.2 Pennies and Avalanches
10.2.3 Insights from the Sandpile Model
10.2.4 Avalanches in Other Systems
10.2.5 Evolution, Extinction, and Missing Links
10.2.6 Technological Disruption and Innovation
10.2.7 Relationship Between CAS and SOC
10.2.8 Healing, Biodynamics, and the Economy
10.3 Systems That Tune to Their Environment
10.3.1 Conway\'s Law
10.3.2 Coadapting Agents and Environments
10.3.3 Paradigm Shifts: Evolution vs Revolution
10.3.4 Tangled Hierarchies
10.4 Creative Systems
10.4.1 Dissolved Networks and Discovery
10.4.2 Intermittent Creativity
10.4.3 Building Tension
10.5 Being Human
10.5.1 What Is a Self
10.5.2 Free Will and Consciousness
10.5.3 Moral Systems and Stories
10.5.4 Tools and the Extended Mind
10.5.5 The Singularity
10.5.6 Staying Human
10.6 Questions
10.7 Resources and Further Reading
11 Criticisms and Future Directions
11.1 Criticisms of Complex Systems Theory
11.1.1 Complex Systems Theory Is Not New
11.1.2 Models, Stories, and Predictability
11.1.3 Definitions Are Murky at Best
11.1.4 Promises, Transcendence, and Arrogance
11.2 Future Directions
11.2.1 Complex Machines
11.2.2 Applications to New Fields
11.2.3 Education and Complex Systems Thinking
11.2.4 Problems and Policies
11.2.5 Complex Systems Alphabet
11.3 Waiting for the Integrator
Bibliography
Index