دانلود کتاب Atmospheric Evolution on Inhabited and Lifeless Worlds

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Contents Preface PART I Principles of Planetary Atmospheres 1 The Structure of Planetary Atmospheres 1.1 Vertical Structure of Atmospheres 1.1.1 Atmospheric Temperature Structure: An Overview 1.1.2 Atmospheric Composition and Mass 1.1.3 Convection and Stability 1.2 Condensable Species on Terrestrial-Type Planets 1.2.1 Pure Water Atmospheres 1.2.2 Atmospheres with Multiple Condensable Species 1.2.3 Water in the Present-Day Martian Atmosphere 2 Energy and Radiation in Planetary Atmospheres 2.1 Energy Sources and Fluxes on Planets 2.1.1 Planetary Energy Sources 2.1.2 Radiation From the Sun and Other Stars 2.2 Planetary Energy Balance and the Greenhouse Effect 2.2.1 Orbits and Planetary Motion 2.2.2 Time-Averaged Incident Solar Flux 2.2.3 Albedo 2.2.4 Planetary Equilibrium Temperature 2.2.5 The Greenhouse Effect 2.2.6 Giant Planets, Internal Heat, and Equilibrium Temperature 2.3 Climate Feedbacks in the “Earth System” 2.3.1 Climate Sensitivity 2.3.2 The Emission Level and Radiative Time Constants 2.4 Principles of Radiation in Planetary Atmospheres 2.4.1 Basic Definitions and Functions in Radiative Transfer 2.4.2 Radiative Transfer in the Visible and Ultraviolet 2.4.3 Radiative Transfer in the Thermal Infrared 2.4.4 Level of Emission and the Meaning of “Optically Thick” and “Optically Thin” 2.4.5 Radiative and Radiative–Convective Equilibrium 2.5 Absorption and Emission of Radiation by Atmospheric Gases 2.5.1 Overview of Absorption Lines 2.5.2 Electric and Magnetic Dipole Moments 2.5.3 Rotational Transitions 2.5.4 Vibrational Transitions 2.5.5 Electronic Transitions 2.5.6 Collision-Induced Absorption: Giant Planets, Titan, Early Earth, and Venus 2.5.7 Line Shapes and Broadening 2.5.8 Continuum Absorption 2.5.9 Band Transmission and Weak and Strong Absorption 2.6 Calculating Atmospheric Absorption in Climate Calculations 3 Essentials of Chemistry of Planetary Atmospheres 3.1 General Principles 3.1.1 Essentials of Thermodynamic Chemical Equilibrium 3.1.2 Chemical Kinetics of Atmospheric Gases 3.1.3 The Importance of Free Radicals 3.1.4 Three-Body (Termolecular) Reactions 3.1.5 Temperature Dependence of Reaction Rates 3.1.6 Photolysis 3.2 Surface Deposition 3.3 Earth’s Stratospheric and Tropospheric Chemistry 3.3.1 Earth’s Stratospheric Chemistry 3.3.2 Earth’s Tropospheric Chemistry 3.4 CO2 Stability on Venus and Mars 3.5 CO2 and Cold Thermospheres of Venus and Mars 3.6 Methane and Hydrocarbons on Outer Planets and Titan 4 Motions in Planetary Atmospheres 4.1 Introductory Concepts 4.1.1 Forces, Apparent Forces, and the Equation of Motion 4.1.2 Characteristic Force Balance Regimes in Atmospheres 4.2 The Zonal-Mean Meridional Circulation and Thermally Driven Jet Streams 4.2.1 The Two Types of Jet Stream: Thermally Driven and Eddy Driven 4.2.2 The Hadley Circulation and Subtropical Jets 4.2.3 Symmetric Hadley Circulation Theory 4.2.4 Asymmetric Hadley Circulations on Earth and Mars, and Monsoons 4.2.5 Hadley Circulations on Venus and Titan 4.2.6 Mean Meridional Circulation and Planetary Habitability 4.3 Eddy-Driven Jet Streams and Planetary Waves 4.3.1 Vorticity 4.3.2 Jet Forcing by Stirring or Friction 4.3.3 Planetary Waves 4.3.4 Effects of Vertical Variation 4.3.5 Planetary Wave Instability 4.3.6 Eddy-Driven Jets on the Outer Planets: Shallow Layer Atmospheres 4.3.7 Eddy-Driven Jets on the Outer Planets: Deep Atmospheres 4.3.8 A Shallow Atmosphere Model Coupled to the Deep Interior of Outer Planets 4.3.9 Ice Giants: Uranus and Neptune 4.4 Buoyancy Waves and Thermal Tides 4.4.1 Mechanism and Properties of Buoyancy Waves 4.4.2 Wave Generation, Breaking, and Impact on the Zonal Mean Flow 4.4.3 Atmospheric Tides 4.5 Superrotation 4.6 Transport by Eddy-Driven Circulations 4.6.1 The Brewer–Dobson Circulation and Mesospheric Circulation 4.6.2 Implications of Large-Scale Overturning Circulations for Atmospheric Evolution 4.7 Atmospheric Dynamics and Habitability: Future Prospects 5 Escape of Atmospheres to Space 5.1 Historical Background to Atmospheric Escape 5.2 Overview of Atmospheric Escape Mechanisms 5.2.1 Thermal Escape Overview 5.2.2 Suprathermal (or Nonthermal) Escape, in Brief 5.2.3 Impact Erosion, in Brief 5.2.4 The Upper Limit of Diffusion-Limited Escape, in Brief 5.3 Breakdown of the Barometric Law 5.4 The Exobase or “Critical Level” 5.5 Escape Velocity 5.6 Jeans’ Thermal Escape of Hydrogen 5.6.1 Concept and Mathematical Derivation 5.6.2 Effusion Velocity 5.7 Suprathermal (Nonthermal) Escape of Hydrogen 5.8 Upwards Diffusion and the “Diffusion-Limited Escape” Concept 5.8.1 Molecular Diffusion 5.8.2 Eddy Diffusion 5.8.3 Diffusion-Limited Escape of Hydrogen 5.8.4 Application of Diffusion-Limited Hydrogen Escape to Earth’s Atmosphere 5.9 Diffusion-Limited Hydrogen Escape Applied to Mars, Titan, and Venus 5.9.1 Mars 5.9.2 Titan 5.9.3 Venus 5.10 Hydrodynamic Escape 5.10.1 Conditions for Hydrodynamic Escape 5.10.2 Energy-Limited Escape 5.10.3 Density-Limited Hydrodynamic Escape 5.10.4 Maximum Molecular Mass Carried Away in Hydrodynamic Escape 5.11 Mass Fractionation by Hydrodynamic Escape 5.11.1 Fractionation Theory 5.11.2 Applications of Mass Fractionation in Hydrodynamic Escape: Noble Gas Isotopes 5.12 Impact Erosion of Planetary Atmospheres 5.13 Summary of the Fundamental Nature of Atmospheric Escape PART II Evolution of the Earth’s Atmosphere 6 Formation of Earth’s Atmosphere and Oceans 6.1 Planetary Formation 6.1.1 Formation of Stars and Protoplanetary Disks 6.1.2 The Planetesimal Hypothesis 6.1.3 Planetary Migration: When Did the Gas and Dust Disappear? 6.2 Volatile Delivery to the Terrestrial Planets 6.2.1 The Equilibrium Condensation Model 6.2.2 Modern Accretion Models 6.2.3 D/H Ratios and their Implications for Water Sources 6.3 Meteorites: Clues to the Early Solar System 6.4 The Implications of the Abundances of Noble Gases and Other Elements 6.4.1 Atmophiles, Geochemical Volatiles, and Refractory Elements 6.4.2 Noble Gases 6.4.3 Early Degassing 6.5 Impact Degassing, Co-accretion of Atmospheres, and Ingassing 6.5.1 Laboratory Evidence for Impact Degassing 6.5.2 Formation of Steam and Reducing Atmospheres During Accretion 6.5.3 Ingassing 6.6 Moon Formation and its Implications for Earth’s Volatile History 6.6.1 The Giant Impact Hypothesis 6.6.2 The Post-Impact Atmosphere and Loss of Volatiles 6.7 “Late Heavy Bombardment”: Causes and Consequences 6.8. The Early Atmosphere: the Effect of Planetary Differentiation and Rotation Rate 6.8.1 Core Formation and its Effect on Atmospheric Chemistry 6.8.2 Day Length, the Lunar Orbit, and the Early Steam Atmosphere 7 Volcanic Outgassing and Mantle Redox Evolution 7.1 Historical Context: Strongly and Weakly Reduced Atmospheres 7.2 Volcanic Outgassing and Metamorphic Degassing of Major Volatile Species 7.2.1 Mechanisms of Volcanic Outgassing 7.2.2 Outgassing and Metamorphic Degassing of CO2 7.2.3 Subaerial Outgassing of H2O, SO2, H2S, and N2 7.3 Oxidation State of the Mantle 7.3.1 Oxidation State of the Present Upper Mantle 7.3.2 How the Mantle Became Oxidized 7.4 Release of Reduced Gases From Subaerial Volcanism 7.5 Reduced Gases Released From Submarine Volcanism and Hydrothermal Systems 7.5.1 H2S and H2 7.5.2 CH4 7.6 Past Rates of Volcanic Outgassing 7.7 Summary 8 Atmospheric and Global Redox Balance 8.1 Principles of Redox Balance 8.2 H2 Budget of the Prebiotic Atmosphere: Approximate Solution 8.3 Rigorous Treatment of Atmospheric Redox Balance 8.4 Global Redox Budget of the Early Earth 8.5 Organic Carbon Burial and the Carbon Isotope Record 8.6 Redox Indicators for Changes in Atmospheric Oxidation State 8.6.1 Holland’s f-Value Analysis 8.6.2 The Catling and Claire KOXY Parameter 9 The Prebiotic and Early Postbiotic Atmosphere 9.1 N2 and CO2 Concentrations in the Primitive Atmosphere 9.2 Prebiotic O2 Concentrations 9.2.1 Dependence of O2 on CO2 9.2.2 Dependence of O2 on H2 9.2.3 Effect of Higher UV Fluxes on O2 and O3 9.3 Prebiotic Synthesis of Organic Compounds in Weakly Reduced Atmospheres 9.3.1 Synthesis of RNA Building Blocks: H2CO and HCN 9.3.2 CO as a Prebiotic Compound 9.4 When Did Life Originate? 9.4.1 Evidence from Microfossils and Stromatolites 9.4.2 Carbon Isotopic Evidence for Early Life 9.4.3 Molecular Biomarkers 9.5 The Molecular Phylogenetic Record of Life 9.6 Early Anaerobic Metabolisms and Their Effect on the Atmosphere 9.6.1 Heterotrophy and Fermentation 9.6.2 Methanogenesis 9.6.3 Sulfur Metabolism and Sulfate Reduction 9.6.4 Nitrogen Fixation and Nitrate Respiration 9.6.5 Anoxygenic Photosynthesis 9.7 Detailed Modeling of H2-Based Ecosystems 9.7.1 Atmosphere–Ocean Gas Exchange: the Stagnant Film Model 9.7.2 Models of H2-Based Archean Ecosystems 9.8 Comparing With the Carbon Isotope Record 10 The Rise of Oxygen and Ozone in Earth’s Atmosphere 10.1 Co-evolution of Life and Oxygen: an Overview 10.2 Controls on O2 Levels 10.2.1 Redox Budgeting for the Modern O2-Rich System 10.2.2 The “Net” Source Flux of O2 10.2.3 The O2 Sink Fluxes 10.2.4 Generalized History of Atmosphere–Ocean Redox 10.3 Evidence for a Paleoproterozoic Rise of O2 10.3.1 Continental Indicators: Paleosols, Detrital Grains, and Redbeds 10.3.2 Banded Iron Formations 10.3.3 Concentration of Redox-Sensitive Elements and the Rise of Oxygen 10.3.4 Iron Speciation: Ocean Anoxia or Euxinia, and the Rise of Oxygen 10.4 Mass-Dependent Stable Isotope Records and the Rise of Oxygen 10.4.1 Carbon Isotopes 10.4.2 Sulfur Isotopes 10.4.3 Nitrogen Isotopes 10.4.4 Transition Metal (Iron, Chromium, and Molybdenum) and Non-Metal Isotopes (Selenium) 10.5 Mass-Independent Fractionation of Sulfur Isotopes and the Rise of Oxygen 10.6 When Did Oxygenic Photosynthesis Appear? 10.6.1 Geochemical Evidence for O2 Before the Great Oxidation Event 10.6.2 Fossil and Biomarker Evidence for O2 Before the Great Oxidation Event 10.7 Explaining the Rise of O2 10.7.1 General Conditions for an Anoxic Versus Oxic Atmosphere 10.7.2 Hypotheses for an Increasing Flux of O2 10.7.3 Hypotheses for a Decreasing Sink of O2 10.8 Atmospheric Chemistry of the Great Oxidation Event 10.8.1 A Great Collapse of Methane 10.8.2 The Formation of a Stratospheric Ozone Shield 10.8.3 Did the Rise of O2 Affect Atmospheric N2 Levels? 10.9 The Neoproterozoic Oxidation Event (NOE) or Second Rise of Oxygen 10.9.1 Evidence for Neoproterozoic Oxygenation 10.9.2 What Caused the Second Rise of Oxygen? 10.10 Phanerozoic Evolution of Atmospheric O2 10.11 O2 and Advanced Life in the Cosmos 11 Long-Term Climate Evolution 11.1 Solar Evolution 11.2 Implications for Planetary Surface Temperatures: Sagan and Mullen’s Model 11.3 Geological Constraints on Archean and Hadean Surface Temperatures 11.3.1 Glacial Constraints on Surface Temperature 11.3.2 Isotopic Constraints on Surface Temperature 11.4 Solving the Faint Young Sun Problem with CO2 11.4.1 The Carbonate–Silicate Cycle 11.4.2 Feedbacks in the Carbonate–Silicate Cycle and a Possible Solution to the Faint Young Sun Problem 11.4.3 Geochemical Constraints on Past CO2 Concentrations 11.5 Clouds and the Faint Young Sun Problem 11.6 Effect of Reducing Gases on Archean Climate 11.6.1 Methane and Climate: Greenhouse and Anti-Greenhouse Effects 11.6.2 Fractal Organic Haze and UV Shielding of Ammonia 11.6.3 Effect of H2 on Archean Climate 11.7 The Gaia Hypothesis 11.8 N2, Barometric Pressure, and Climate 11.9 The Warm and Stable Mid-Proterozoic Climate 11.9.1 Greenhouse Warming by CH4 11.9.2 Greenhouse Warming by N2O 11.10 The Neoproterozoic “Snowball Earth” Episodes 11.10.1 Geologic Evidence for Snowball Earth 11.10.2 Alternative Models to Explain Low-Latitude Glaciation 11.10.3 Triggering a Snowball Earth 11.10.4 Recovery from Snowball Earth 11.10.5 Survival of the Photosynthetic Biota: the Thin-Ice Model and Narrow Waterbelt State 11.11 Phanerozoic Climate Variations PART III Atmospheres and Climates on Other Worlds 12 Mars 12.1 Introduction to Mars 12.1.1 Overview of Mars 12.1.2 The Geologic Timescale for Mars 12.1.3 The Basis of our Knowledge: Spacecraft Data and Martian Meteorites 12.2 The Present-Day Atmosphere and Climate of Mars 12.2.1 Composition and Thickness of the Present Atmosphere 12.2.2 Climate and Meteorology 12.2.3 Atmospheric Chemistry 12.2.4 The Escape of H, O, C, and N 12.3 Volatile Inventory: Present and Past 12.3.1 The Present-Day Volatile Inventories 12.3.2 Past Volatile Inventory 12.3.3 Noachian and Pre-Noachian Atmospheric Escape: Theory and Evidence 12.4 Evidence for Past Climate Change and Different Atmospheres 12.4.1 Geomorphic Evidence of Possible Water Flow 12.4.2 Mineralogy and Sedimentology 12.5 Explaining the Early Climate of Mars 12.5.1 The Faint Young Sun Problem 12.5.2 Mechanisms for Producing Early Climates Conducive to Fluvial Erosion 12.6 Effect of Orbital Change on Past Martian Climate 12.7 Wind Modification of the Surface 12.8 Unanswered Questions of Mars’ Astrobiology and Atmospheric Evolution 13 Evolution of Venus’ Atmosphere 13.1 Current State of Venus’ Atmosphere 13.1.1 Atmospheric Temperature and Composition: the Concept of “Excess Volatiles” 13.1.2 Cloud Composition and Photochemistry 13.1.3 Atmospheric Circulation 13.2 The Solid Planet: Is Plate Tectonics Active on Venus? 13.3 Formation of Venus’ Atmosphere: Wet or Dry? 13.4 The Runaway Greenhouse 13.4.1 The Classical Runaway Greenhouse 13.4.2 A Simple Approximation to the Outgoing Infrared Flux from a Runaway Greenhouse Atmosphere 13.4.3 More Rigorous Limits on Outgoing Infrared Radiation from Gray Atmospheres 13.4.4 Radiation Limits from Non-Gray Models 13.4.5 Evolution of Venus’ Atmosphere: the “Moist Greenhouse” 13.5 Stability of Venus’ Present Atmosphere 13.6 Implications for Earth and Earth-Like Planets 13.6.1 Can CO2 Cause a Runaway Greenhouse on Earth? 13.6.2 Future Evolution of Earth’s Climate 14 Giant Planets and their Satellites 14.1 Giant Planets 14.1.1 Current Atmospheres 14.1.2 Thermal Evolution of Giant Planets and their Atmospheres 14.1.3 Thermal (Hydrodynamic) Escape on Hot Giant Exoplanets 14.2 Tenuous Atmospheres on Icy Worlds 14.2.1 Overview of Outer Satellite Atmospheres 14.2.2 Tenuous Volcanic or Cryovolcanic Atmospheres 14.2.3 Tenuous O2-Rich and CO2-Rich Atmospheres 14.2.4 The Nitrogen Atmospheres of Triton and Pluto 14.3 The Dense Atmosphere on Titan versus the Barren Galilean Satellites 14.4 Titan 14.4.1 Overview 14.4.2 Titan’s Atmosphere: Structure, Climate, Chemistry, and Methane Cycle 14.4.3 Atmospheric Escape 14.4.4 Origin and Evolution of Titan’s Atmosphere 14.4.5 Life on Titan: “Weird Life” or Liquid Water Life 14.5 The Exoplanet Context for Outer Planets and their Satellites 15 Exoplanets: Habitability and Characterization 15.1 The Circumstellar Habitable Zone 15.1.1 Requirements for Life: the Importance of Liquid Water 15.1.2 Historical Treatment of the Habitable Zone 15.1.3 Modern Limits on the Habitable Zone Around the Sun 15.1.4 Empirical Estimates of Habitable Zone Boundaries 15.1.5 Habitable Zones Around Other Main Sequence Stars 15.1.6 Other Concepts of the Habitable Zone 15.1.7 The Galactic Habitable Zone 15.2 Finding Planets Around Other Stars 15.2.1 The Astrometric Method 15.2.2 The Radial Velocity Method 15.2.3 The Transit Method and Results from NASA’s Kepler Mission 15.2.4 Gravitational Microlensing 15.2.5 Direct Detection Methods: Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF) and Darwin 15.3 Characterizing Exoplanet Atmospheres and Surfaces 15.3.1 The Near Term: Transit Spectra of Planets Around Low-Mass Stars 15.3.2 The Future: Direct Detection of Habitable Planets 15.4 Interpretation of Possible Biosignatures 15.4.1 The Criterion of Extreme Thermodynamic Disequilibrium 15.4.2 Classification of Biosignature Gases 15.4.3 Is O2 by Itself a Reliable Biosignature? 15.5 Parting Thoughts Appendix A: One-Dimensional Climate Model A.1 Numerical Method A.2 Calculation of Radiative Fluxes A.3 Treatment of Water Vapor A.4 Treatment of Clouds Appendix B: Photochemical Models B.1 Photochemical Model Equations B.2 Finite Differencing the Model Equations B.3 Solving the System of Ordinary Differential Equations (ODEs) B.4 Boundary Conditions B.5 Including Particles B.6 Setting up the Chemical Production and Loss Matrices B.7 Long- and Short-Lived Species and Ill-Conditioned Matrices B.8 Rainout, Lightning, and Photolysis Appendix C: Atomic States and Term Symbols Bibliography Index