دانلود کتاب Burmese - A Comprehensive Grammar

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Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of Contents
Abbreviations
Acknowledgments
1 Introduction
1.1 Historical and social context
1.2 Myanmar and Burma: Literary and Colloquial Burmese
1.3 Burmese today
1.3.1 The language and its speakers
1.3.2 Burmese globalized: Loanwords, code mixing, and slang
1.4 Structure of Burmese: An overview
1.4.1 Sounds
1.4.2 Grammatical features
1.4.3 Role of context: Linguistic and extralinguistic
1.5 About this grammar
2 Sound system and script
2.1 Sound system
2.1.1 Consonants
Plain consonants
Consonant clusters
2.1.2 Vowels
Plain vowels
Vowels in closed syllables
2.1.3 Tones, voice quality, and prosody
Tones
Stress and prosody
2.1.4 Syllable structure
2.1.5 Sandhi
Voicing
Assimilation
2.1.6 Regional and sociolectal variants
2.2 Script
2.2.1 Consonants
2.2.2 Ligatures – initial and medial
2.2.3 Vowels – free and bound
2.2.4 Rhymes
Vowels and final consonants
Representation of tones
2.2.5 Special symbols
2.2.6 Numerals
2.2.7 Spacing and punctuation
2.2.8 Finding words in dictionaries and spelling words
Alphabetical order
Spelling out words
2.2.9 Chat script
2.2.10 Other methods of transcription
3 Parts of speech
3.1 Nominals
3.1.1 Nouns
3.1.2 Pronouns
3.1.3 Measure words
3.1.4 Classifiers
3.2 Verbs
3.2.1 Main verbs
3.2.2 Auxiliaries
3.2.3 Types of verbs
Intransitive verbs
Transitive verbs
Property verbs (adjectives)
3.3 Adverbs
3.3.1 Phrasal adverbs
3.3.2 Clausal adverbs
3.4 Markers and particles
3.4.1 Grammatical markers
Phrasal markers
Clausal markers
3.4.2 Pragmatic particles
Phrasal particles
Clausal particles
4 Lexicon
4.1 Pronouns
4.1.1 First person pronouns
4.1.2 Second person pronouns
4.1.3 Third person pronouns
4.1.4 Other pronouns
4.2 Kinship terms and personal names
4.2.1 Kinship terms
4.2.2 Personal names
4.3 Numerals
4.3.1 Cardinal numerals
4.3.2 Ordinal numerals
4.3.3 Fractions of whole numbers
4.3.4 Multipliers
4.3.5 Percentages and distributives
4.4 Classifiers and measure words
4.4.1 Classifiers
4.4.2 Measure words
4.5 Time and date
4.5.1 Units of time
4.5.2 Adverbs of time
4.5.3 Days, months, and years
4.6 Meteorological and natural phenomena
4.7 Feeling terms
4.8 Color terms
4.9 Specific vocabulary for different activities
4.10 Elaborate expressions
4.11 Ideophones
4.12 Loanwords
4.12.1 Pali/Sanskrit
4.12.2 English
4.12.3 Others
5 Word structure
5.1 Derivational affixes
5.1.1 The nominal prefix ʔə-
5.1.2 Nominal suffixes
Abstract nouns
People
Something to V
Modifying
Gender
5.1.3 Derivation by tone change
5.2 Compounding
5.2.1 Nouns
Modifying compounds
Additive compounds
Euphonic compounds
Exocentric compounds
5.2.2 Verbs
Verb-verb, not analyzable
Verb-verb, modifying
Verb-verb, additive
Verb-verb, euphonic
Noun-verb
5.3 Reduplication
5.3.1 Nominal reduplication
5.3.2 Measure words and classifiers
5.3.3 Verbal reduplication
Preverbal: adverbial
Postnominal: attributive
Special reduplication patterns
5.3.4 Adverbial reduplication
6 Phrase structure
6.1 Noun phrase
6.1.1 Plural markers
-twe/dwe ‘general plural’
-tó/dó ‘associative plural’
6.1.2 Classifier phrase
6.1.3 Quantifiers
-tàin/dàin ‘each, every’
tə-N-lòun ‘the whole N’
-səlòun/ -zəlòun, -lòun ‘all of’
-pàun/bàun ‘sum, combined number, total’
ʔəmyà.zòun ‘(at/the) most’, ʔənɛ̀.zòun ‘(at/the) least’
ʔəmyà.zú ‘most of, majority’, ʔənɛ̀.zú
‘fewest of, minority’
təʨʰó ‘some’
ʔà.lòun ‘all’
tə-X-təle ‘some, a few’
məká ‘more than, not as few as’
6.1.4 Enumeration
Exhaustive lists
Representative lists
Non-specific parallel lists
6.1.5 Demonstratives
6.1.6 Interrogatives and indefinites
6.1.7 təʨʰà ‘other’, ‘another’
6.1.8 Attributive modifiers
Verbal attributives
Nominal attributives
Adverbial attributives
6.1.9 Possessives
6.1.10 Postnominal markers
Case markers
Location markers
Derived postpositions
6.2 Verb phrase
6.2.1 Preverbal auxiliaries
la ‘come’ and θwà ‘go’
pyan ‘return’
tʰaʔ ‘pile up, impose, put on top’
sʰɛʔ ‘connect, continue’
laiʔ ‘follow, go around and’
ɕauʔ ‘walk, go around and’
sá ‘begin’
ʨo/ʨo.tin ‘do in advance’
ʨí ‘look’
ku/ku.ɲi ‘help’
wàin ‘surround’
pàun ‘combine, add’ and kʰwɛ̀ ‘split, take
apart, separate’
pè ‘give’
6.2.2 Postverbal auxiliaries
-ʨʰin/ʥin ‘want to’
-se/ze ‘let’
-pʰù/bu ‘have had the experience, ever’
-yá ‘get, must’
-laiʔ ‘follow, just, for good, without
further consideration’
-la ‘come’
-θwà/ðwà ‘go’
-ne ‘stay’
-tʰà ‘keep’
-pè ‘give’
-θín/ðín ‘proper, suitable, appropriate,
should, ought’
-yɛ̀ ‘dare’
-taʔ/daʔ ‘able, skilled, know how’
-nain ‘capable’
-ʔà ‘free’
-kʰàin ‘order’
-pyan-bi ‘do again’
yá ‘can, may’
pì ‘finished’
koun ‘all’
6.2.3 Negation
6.2.4 Plural subject
6.2.5 Displacement in space and time
6.2.6 Importance, politeness, emphasis
6.2.7 Aspectual markers
-θè/ðè ‘yet’
-ʔòun ‘further, more, again’
-tɔ́/dɔ́ ‘change of situation’
6.2.8 Status markers
-tɛ/dɛ ‘non-future, realis’
-mɛ ‘future, irrealis’
-pi/bi ‘new situation’
-pʰù/bù ‘negation’
-nɛ́ ‘prohibitive’
6.3 Adverbial phrase
6.3.1 V-V reduplication
6.3.2 N-lo, V-θə.lo/ðə.lo ‘as, like’
6.3.3 N-nɛ́ , V-ta/da-nɛ́ ‘with’ and N-mɛ́,
mə-V-pʰɛ̀ /bɛ̀ ‘without’
6.3.4 ʔə-V-ʨì/ʥì ‘very’
6.3.5 -kʰənɛ̀ /gənɛ̀ ‘abruptly’
7 Clause and sentence structure
7.1 The makeup of clauses
7.1.1 Clauses with verbal predicates
7.1.2 Clauses with non-verbal predicates
Identity: “zero copula”, pʰyiʔ ‘to be’,
mə-houʔ-pʰù ‘it is not’
Existential and possessive: ɕí ‘exist, there
is, have’ and pa ‘be included’
Locative: ne ‘be at, stay, remain’
7.2 Clause types
7.2.1 Independent clauses
Status markers
Constituent order
Non-finite independent clauses
7.2.2 Dependent clauses
Complement clauses
Nominalized clauses
[CLAUSE-FIN, NP] ló
[CLAUSE, XP]-hmàn
Relative clauses
Adverbial clauses
Negative
Conditional
Purposive
Causal
Sequential
Temporal
Concessive
Clauses with postpositions
7.3 Transitivity
7.3.1 Intransitive
7.3.2 Transitive
7.3.3 Ditransitive
7.4 Valency changing
7.4.1 Passive
7.4.2 Causative
Lexical
Periphrastic
V-se/ze
V-kʰàin
pè-V
[CLAUSE]-ʔaun louʔ
7.4.3 Benefactive
7.5 Participation
7.5.1 Solitary
7.5.2 Reciprocal
7.5.3 Associative
7.5.4 Distributive
7.6 Combining sentences
8 Form and functions of utterances
8.1 Statements
8.1.1 Plain statements
General statements
Emphatic statements
8.1.2 Reported speech
Self-report or general report
Second person report
Third person report
8.2 Questions
8.2.1 Polar questions
8.2.2 Content questions
Pronominal interrogatives
Interrogative modifiers
Interrogative quantifiers
Temporal interrogatives
Locative interrogatives
Other interrogatives
Indefinites
8.2.3 Alternative questions
8.2.4 Tag questions
8.2.5 Elliptical questions
8.3 Requests
8.3.1 Direct imperatives
Softening a command
Intensifying a command
8.3.2 Prohibitive
8.3.3 Adhortatives
8.3.4 Indirect imperatives/optatives
9 Negation
9.1 Negating verbs
9.1.1 Standard negation
Basic negation
Negation with modifier
Negation with incorporated nouns
Negation in colloquial language
Negation in dependent clauses
Negated complement and relative clauses
9.1.2 Aspectual/temporal negation
9.1.3 Emphatic negation
Intensifying adverbial
Negated quantifier/indefinite
9.2 Negating non-verbal elements
9.2.1 Negating nouns and adverbials
9.2.2 Negating clauses
9.3 Nominal and clausal negation
9.3.1 Nominal negation
9.3.2 Clausal negation
9.4 Indefinite negation
10 Expression of tense, aspect, and modality
10.1 Tense
10.1.1 Non-future/realis
10.1.2 Future/irrealis
10.2 Aspect
10.2.1 New state of affairs
10.2.2 Old state of affairs
Past and present reference
Future reference
10.2.3 Ongoing event
10.2.4 Displacement in time and space
Activity directed towards or at the center of interest
Activity done at another place
Activity removed from present
10.2.5 Change of state and direction
la ‘come’
θwà/ðwà ‘go’
la and θwà/ðwà compared
10.2.6 Experiential
10.2.7 Completive
10.2.8 Repetitive
10.2.9 Continuous
10.3 Aspect and manner
10.3.1 Without further ado: laiʔ
10.3.2 For the time being: tʰà
10.3.3 Have time to do: ʔà
10.3.5 Do rarely: kʰɛ̀ /gɛ̀
10.4 Modality and more
10.4.1 Ability
yá ‘get’
taʔ/daʔ ‘able’
nain ‘win, capable’
10.4.2 Possibility
nain ‘win, capable’
V-ʨʰin/ʥin V-mɛ ‘maybe’
V kàun V-mɛ ‘possibly’
lauʔ ‘as much as, probably’
-léin.mɛ, -mɛ ‘will probably, certainly’
V-mɛ tʰin-dɛ ‘will V, I think’
10.4.3 Actuality
10.4.4 Necessity and obligation
10.4.5 Desiderative
10.4.6 Appropriateness
10.4.7 Do unintentionally
10.4.8 Daring
10.4.9 Trial
10.4.10 Empathy
10.5 Easy and difficult to do
10.6 Liking
11 Intensifiers and comparison
11.1 Intensifiers
11.1.1 Intensifying and softening adverbs
Intensifying
Too much
Softening
11.1.2 Negation of intensifiers
11.2 Comparison
11.2.1 Comparative
Marked on standard
Marked on verb
Marked on standard and property
Comparison with transitive predicates
Quantified comparison
11.2.2 Similative and equative
Similative
Equative
11.2.3 Superlative
Superlative with intransitive verbs
Superlative with transitive verbs
11.2.4 Correlative comparative
12 Pragmatics and language use
12.1 Minimal utterances
12.2 Incomplete utterances
12.3 Extended utterances
12.4 Making assumptions
12.5 Subjectivity
12.5.1 Properties
12.5.2 Quantities
12.6 Soliciting agreement
12.7 Sentence-final discourse markers
12.7.1 Speaker’s attitude
12.7.2 Politeness
12.7.3 Emphatic utterances
12.7.4 Negative emphatic
12.8 Information structure
12.8.1 Topic/comment
12.8.2 Topic and focus markers
12.8.3 Foregrounding
12.8.4 Exclusive
12.8.5 Additive
12.8.6 Contrastive
12.8.7 Reference tracking
12.9 Pragmatic case marking
12.9.1 Differential subject marking
12.9.2 Differential object marking
12.10 Social interaction
12.10.1 Politeness conventions
12.10.2 Greetings
12.10.3 Interacting with Buddhist monks
Glossary of grammatical terms
Index