دانلود کتاب Cell biology

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Cover Title Page Copyright About the Authors Preface to the Global Edition Contents 1 Introduction to Cell Biology 1.1 The Discovery of Cells Microscopy Cell Theory 1.2 Basic Properties of Cells Cells Are Highly Complex and Organized Cells Possess a Genetic Program and the Means to Use It Cells Are Capable of Producing More of Themselves Cells Acquire and Utilize Energy Cells Carry Out a Variety of Chemical Reactions Cells Engage in Mechanical Activities Cells are Able to Respond to Stimuli Cells Are Capable of Self-Regulation Cells Evolve 1.3 Two Fundamentally Different Classes of Cells 1.4 Types of Prokaryotic Cells Domain Archaea and Domain Bacteria Prokaryotic Diversity 1.5 Types of Eukaryotic Cells Cell Differentiation Model Organisms 1.6 The Sizes of Cells and Their Components 1.7 Viruses Viroids The Human Perspective The Prospect of Cell Replacement Therapy Experimental Pathways The Origin of Eukaryotic Cells 2 The Structure and Functions of Biological Molecules 2.1 Covalent Bonds Polar and Nonpolar Molecules Ionization 2.2 Noncovalent Bonds Ionic Bonds: Attractions between Charged Atoms Hydrogen Bonds Hydrophobic Interactions and van der Waals Forces The Life-Supporting Properties of Water 2.3 Acids, Bases, and Buffers 2.4 The Nature of Biological Molecules Functional Groups A Classification of Biological Molecules by Function 2.5 Carbohydrates The Structure of Simple Sugars Stereoisomerism Linking Sugars Together Polysaccharides 2.6 Lipids Fats Steroids Phospholipids 2.7 Building Blocks of Proteins The Structures of Amino Acids The Properties of the Side Chains 2.8 Primary and Secondary Structures of Proteins Primary Structure Secondary Structure 2.9 Tertiary Structure of Proteins Myoglobin: The First Globular Protein Whose Tertiary Structure Was Determined Tertiary Structure May Reveal Unexpected Similarities between Proteins Protein Domains Dynamic Changes within Proteins 2.10 Quaternary Structure of Proteins The Structure of Hemoglobin Protein–Protein Interactions 2.11 Protein Folding Dynamics of Protein Folding The Role of Molecular Chaperones 2.12 Proteomics and Interactomics Proteomics Interactomics 2.13 Protein Engineering Production of Novel Proteins Structure-Based Drug Design 2.14 Protein Adaptation and Evolution 2.15 Nucleic Acids 2.16 The Formation of Complex Macromolecular Structures The Assembly of Tobacco Mosaic Virus Particles The Assembly of Ribosomal Subunits The Human Perspective I. Do Free Radicals Cause Aging? II. Protein Misfolding Can Have Deadly Consequences Experimental Pathways Chaperones—Helping Proteins Reach Their Proper Folded State 3 Bioenergetics, Enzymes, and Metabolism 3.1 Bioenergetics The First Law of Thermodynamics The Second Law of Thermodynamics 3.2 Free Energy Free‐Energy Changes in Chemical Reactions Free‐Energy Changes in Metabolic Reactions 3.3 Coupling Endergonic and Exergonic Reactions 3.4 Equilibrium versus Steady‐State Metabolism 3.5 Enzymes as Biological Catalysts The Properties of Enzymes Overcoming the Activation Energy Barrier The Active Site 3.6 Mechanisms of Enzyme Catalysis Substrate Orientation Changing Substrate Reactivity Inducing Strain in the Substrate 3.7 Enzyme Kinetics The Michaelis-Menten Model of Enzyme Kinetics Enzyme Inhibitors 3.8 Metabolism Oxidation and Reduction: A Matter of Electrons The Capture and Utilization of Energy 3.9 Glycolysis and ATP Production ATP Production in Glycolysis Anaerobic Oxidation of Pyruvate: The Process of Fermentation 3.10 Reducing Power 3.11 Metabolic Regulation Altering Enzyme Activity by Covalent Modification Altering Enzyme Activity by Allosteric Modulation 3.12 Separating Catabolic and Anabolic Pathways The Human Perspective I. The Growing Problem of Antibiotic Resistance II. Caloric Restriction and Longevity 4 Genes, Chromosomes, and Genomes 4.1 The Concept of a Gene as a Unit of Inheritance 4.2 The Discovery of Chromosomes 4.3 Chromosomes: The Physical Carriers of the Genes The Chromosome as a Linkage Group 4.4 Genetic Analysis in Drosophila Crossing Over and Recombination Mutagenesis and Giant Chromosomes 4.5 The Structure of DNA The Watson-Crick Proposal The Importance of the Watson‐Crick Proposal 4.6 DNA Supercoiling 4.7 The Structure of the Genome DNA Denaturation DNA Renaturation 4.8 The Stability of the Genome Whole-Genome Duplication (Polyploidization) Duplication and Modification of DNA Sequences Evolution of Globin Genes 4.9 “Jumping Genes” and the Dynamic Nature of the Genome Transposons The Role of Mobile Genetic Elements in Genome Evolution 4.10 Sequencing Genomes: The Footprints of Biological Evolution 4.11 Comparative Genomics: “If It’s Conserved, It Must Be Important” 4.12 The Genetic Basis of “Being Human” 4.13 Genetic Variation within the Human Species Population DNA Sequence Variation Structural Variation Copy Number Variation The Human Perspective I. Diseases That Result from Expansion of Trinucleotide Repeats II. Application of Genomic Analyses to Medicine Experimental Pathways The Chemical Nature of the Gene 5 The Path to Gene Expression 5.1 The Relationship between Genes, Proteins, and RNAs Evidence That DNA Is the Genetic Material An Overview of the Flow of Information through the Cell 5.2 The Role of RNA Polymerases in Transcription 5.3 An Overview of Transcription in Both Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells Transcription in Bacteria Transcription and RNA Processing in Eukaryotic Cells 5.4 Synthesis and Processing of Eukaryotic Ribosomal and Transfer RNAs Synthesis and Processing of the rRNA Precursor The Role of snoRNAs in the Processing of Pre‐rRNA Synthesis and Processing of the 5S rRNA Transfer RNAs 5.5 Synthesis and Structure of Eukaryotic Messenger RNAs The Formation of Heterogeneous Nuclear RNA (hnRNA) The Machinery for mRNA Transcription The Structure of mRNAs 5.6 Split Genes: An Unexpected Finding 5.7 The Processing of Eukaryotic Messenger RNAs 5′ Caps and 3′ Poly(A) Tails RNA Splicing: Removal of Introns from a Pre‐RNA 5.8 Evolutionary Implications of Split Genes and RNA Splicing 5.9 Creating New Ribozymes in the Laboratory 5.10 Small Regulatory RNAs and RNA Silencing Pathway 5.11 Small RNAs: miRNAs and piRNAs miRNAs: A Class of Small RNAs that Regulate Gene Expression piRNAs: A Class of Small RNAs that Function in Germ Cells 5.12 CRISPR and other Noncoding RNAs CRISPR: Noncoding RNA in Bacteria Other Noncoding RNAs 5.13 Encoding Genetic Information The Properties of the Genetic Code Identifying the Codons 5.14 Decoding the Codons: The Role of Transfer RNAs The Structure of tRNAs tRNA Charging 5.15 Translating Genetic Information: Initiation Initiation of Translation in Prokaryotes Initiation of Translation in Eukaryotes The Role of the Ribosome 5.16 Translating Genetic Information: Elongation and Termination Elongation Step 1: Aminoacyl‐tRNA Selection Elongation Step 2: Peptide Bond Formation Elongation Step 3: Translocation Elongation Step 4: Releasing the Deacylated tRNA Termination 5.17 mRNA Surveillance and Quality Control 5.18 Polyribosomes The Human Perspective Clinical Applications of RNA Interference Experimental Pathways The Role of RNA as a Catalyst 6 Controlling Gene Expression 6.1 Control of Gene Expression in Bacteria Organization of Bacterial Genomes The Bacterial Operon Riboswitches 6.2 Control of Gene Expression in Eukaryotes: Structure and Function of the Cell Nucleus The Nuclear Pore Complex and Its Role in Nucleocytoplasmic Trafficking RNA Transport 6.3 Chromosomes and Chromatin Nucleosomes: The Lowest Level of Chromosome Organization Higher Levels of Chromatin Structure 6.4 Heterochromatin and Euchromatin X Chromosome Inactivation The Histone Code and Formation of Heterochromatin 6.5 The Structure of a Mitotic Chromosome Telomeres Centromeres 6.6 Epigenetics: There’s More to Inheritance than DNA 6.7 The Nucleus as an Organized Organelle 6.8 An Overview of Gene Regulation in Eukaryotes 6.9 Transcriptional Control DNA Microarrays RNA Sequencing 6.10 The Role of Transcription Factors in Regulating Gene Expression The Role of Transcription Factors in Determining a Cell’s Phenotype 6.11 The Structure of Transcription Factors Transcription Factor Motifs 6.12 DNA Sites Involved in Regulating Transcription 6.13 The Glucocorticoid Receptor: An Example of Transcriptional Activation 6.14 Transcriptional Activation: The Role of Enhancers, Promoters, and Coactivators Coactivators That Interact with the Basal Transcription Machinery Coactivators That Alter Chromatin Structure 6.15 Transcriptional Activation from Paused Polymerases 6.16 Transcriptional Repression DNA Methylation Genomic Imprinting Long Noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) as Transcriptional Repressors 6.17 RNA Processing Control 6.18 Translational Control Initiation of Translation Cytoplasmic Localization of mRNAs The Control of mRNA Stability 6.19 The Role of MicroRNAs in Translational Control 6.20 Posttranslational Control: Determining Protein Stability The Human Perspective Chromosomal Aberrations and Human Disorders 7 DNA Replication and Repair 7.1 DNA Replication 7.2 DNA Replication in Bacterial Cells Replication Forks and Bidirectional Replication Unwinding the Duplex and Separating the Strands The Properties of DNA Polymerases Semidiscontinuous Replication 7.3 The Machinery Operating at the Replication Fork 7.4 The Structure and Functions of DNA Polymerases Exonuclease Activities of DNA Polymerases Ensuring High Fidelity during DNA Replication 7.5 Replication in Viruses 7.6 DNA Replication in Eukaryotic Cells Initiation of Replication in Eukaryotic Cells Restricting Replication to Once Per Cell Cycle The Eukaryotic Replication Fork Replication and Nuclear Structure 7.7 Chromatin Structure and Replication 7.8 DNA Repair Nucleotide Excision Repair Base Excision Repair Mismatch Repair Double‐Strand Breakage Repair 7.9 Between Replication and Repair The Human Perspective Consequences of DNA Repair Deficiencies 8 Cellular Membrane 8.1 Introduction to the Plasma Membrane An Overview of Membrane Functions A Brief History of Studies on Plasma Membrane Structure 8.2 The Chemical Composition of Membranes Membrane Lipids The Nature and Importance of the Lipid Bilayer The Asymmetry of Membrane Lipids 8.3 Membrane Carbohydrates 8.4 The Structure and Functions of Membrane Proteins Integral Membrane Proteins Peripheral Membrane Proteins Lipid‐Anchored Membrane Proteins 8.5 Studying the Structure and Properties of Integral Membrane Proteins Identifying Transmembrane Domains Experimental Approaches to Identifying Conformational Changes within an Integral Membrane Protein 8.6 Membrane Lipids and Membrane Fluidity The Importance of Membrane Fluidity Maintaining Membrane Fluidity Lipid Rafts 8.7 The Dynamic Nature of the Plasma Membrane The Diffusion of Membrane Proteins after Cell Fusion Restrictions on Protein and Lipid Mobility 8.8 The Red Blood Cell: An Example of Plasma Membrane Structure Integral Proteins of the Erythrocyte Membrane The Erythrocyte Membrane Skeleton 8.9 The Movement of Substances across Cell Membranes The Energetics of Solute Movement Formation of an Electrochemical Gradient 8.10 Diffusion through the Lipid Bilayer Diffusion of Substances through Membranes The Diffusion of Water through Membranes 8.11 The Diffusion of Ions through Membranes 8.12 Facilitated Diffusion 8.13 Active Transport Primary Active Transport: Coupling Transport to ATP Hydrolysis Other Primary Ion Transport Systems Using Light Energy to Actively Transport Ions Secondary Active Transport (or Cotransport): Coupling Transport to Existing Ion Gradients 8.14 Membrane Potentials The Resting Potential The Action Potential 8.15 Propagation of Action Potentials as an Impulse 8.16 Neurotransmission: Jumping the Synaptic Cleft Actions of Drugs on Synapses Synaptic Plasticity The Human Perspective Defects in Ion Channels and Transporters as a Cause of Inherited Disease Experimental Pathways The Acetylcholine Receptor 9 Mitochondrion and Aerobic Respiration 9.1 Mitochondrial Structure and Function Mitochondrial Membranes The Mitochondrial Matrix 9.2 Oxidative Metabolism in the Mitochondrion The Tricarboxylic Acid (TCA) Cycle The Importance of Reduced Coenzymes in the Formation of ATP 9.3 The Role of Mitochondria in the Formation of ATP Oxidation–Reduction Potentials Electron Transport Types of Electron Carriers 9.4 Electron‐Transport Complexes Complex I (NADH dehydrogenase) Complex II (succinate dehydrogenase) Complex III (cytochrome bc1) Complex IV (cytochrome c oxidase) 9.5 Translocation of Protons and the Establishment of a Proton‐Motive Force 9.6 The Machinery for ATP Formation The Structure of ATP Synthase 9.7 The Binding Change Mechanism of ATP Formation Components of the Binding Change Hypothesis Evidence to Support the Binding Change Mechanism and Rotary Catalysis 9.8 Using the Proton Gradient The Role of the Fo Portion of ATP Synthase in ATP Synthesis Other Roles for the Proton‐Motive Force in Addition to ATP Synthesis 9.9 Peroxisomes The Human Perspective I. The Role of Anaerobic and Aerobic Metabolism in Exercise II. Diseases that Result from Abnormal Mitochondrial or Peroxisomal Function 10 Chloroplast and Photosynthesis 10.1 The Origin of Photosynthesis 10.2 Chloroplast Structure and Function 10.3 An Overview of Photosynthetic Metabolism 10.4 The Absorption of Light Photosynthetic Pigments 10.5 Photosynthetic Units and Reaction Centers Oxygen Formation: Coordinating the Action of Two Different Photosynthetic Systems 10.6 The Operations of Photosystem II and Photosystem I PSII Operations: Obtaining Electrons by Splitting Water PSI Operations: The Production of NADPH 10.7 An Overview of Photosynthetic Electron Transport Killing Weeds by Inhibiting Electron Transport 10.8 Photophosphorylation Noncyclic Versus Cyclic Photophosphorylation 10.9 Carbon Dioxide Fixation and the Carbohydrate Synthesis Carbohydrate Synthesis in C3 Plants Redox Control Photorespiration Peroxisomes and Photorespiration 10.10 Carbohydrate Synthesis in C4 and CAM Plants The Human Perspective Global Warming and Carbon Sequestration 11 The Extracellular Matrix and Cell Interactions 11.1 Overview of Extracellular Interactions 11.2 The Extracellular Space The Extracellular Matrix 11.3 Components of the Extracellular Matrix Collagen Proteoglycans Fibronectin Laminin 11.4 Dynamic Properties of the Extracellular Matrix 11.5 Interactions of Cells with Extracellular Materials Integrins 11.6 Anchoring Cells to Their Substratum Focal Adhesions Hemidesmosomes 11.7 Interactions of Cells with Other Cells Selectins The Immunoglobulin Superfamily Cadherins 11.8 Adherens Junctions and Desmosomes: Anchoring Cells to Other Cells 11.9 The Role of Cell‐Adhesion Receptors in Transmembrane Signaling 11.10 Tight Junctions: Sealing the Extracellular Space 11.11 Gap Junctions and Plasmodesmata: Mediating Intercellular Communication Gap Junctions Plasmodesmata 11.12 Cell Walls The Human Perspective The Role of Cell Adhesion in Inflammation and Metastasis Experimental Pathways The Role of Gap Junctions in Intercellular Communication 12 Cellular Organelles and Membrane Trafficking 12.1 An Overview of the Endomembrane System 12.2 A Few Approaches to the Study of Endomembranes Insights Gained from Autoradiography Insights Gained from the Use of the Green Fluorescent Protein Insights Gained from the Analysis of Subcellular Fractions Insights Gained from the Use of Cell‐Free Systems Insights Gained from the Study of Mutant Phenotypes 12.3 The Endoplasmic Reticulum The Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum The Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum 12.4 Functions of the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum Synthesis of Proteins on Membrane‐Bound versus Free Ribosomes Synthesis of Secretory, Lysosomal, or Plant Vacuolar Proteins Processing of Newly Synthesized Proteins in the Endoplasmic Reticulum Synthesis of Integral Membrane Proteins on ER‐Bound Ribosomes 12.5 Membrane Biosynthesis in the Endoplasmic Reticulum 12.6 Glycosylation in the Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum 12.7 Mechanisms That Ensure the Destruction of Misfolded Proteins 12.8 ER to Golgi Vesicular Transport 12.9 The Golgi Complex Glycosylation in the Golgi Complex The Movement of Materials through the Golgi Complex 12.10 Types of Vesicle Transport and Their Functions COPII‐Coated Vesicles: Transporting Cargo from the ER to the Golgi Complex COPI‐Coated Vesicles: Transporting Escaped Proteins Back to the ER 12.11 Beyond the Golgi Complex: Sorting Proteins at the TGN Sorting and Transport of Lysosomal Enzymes Sorting and Transport of Nonlysosomal Proteins 12.12 Targeting Vesicles to a Particular Compartment 12.13 Exocytosis 12.14 Lysosomes 12.15 Plant Cell Vacuoles 12.16 Endocytosis Receptor‐Mediated Endocytosis and the Role of Coated Pits The Role of Phosphoinositides in the Regulation of Coated Vesicles 12.17 The Endocytic Pathway 12.18 Phagocytosis 12.19 Posttranslational Uptake of Proteins by Peroxisomes, Mitochondria, and Chloroplasts Uptake of Proteins into Peroxisomes Uptake of Proteins into Mitochondria Uptake of Proteins into Chloroplasts The Human Perspective Disorders Resulting from Defects in Lysosomal Function Experimental Pathways Receptor‐Mediated Endocytosis 13 The Cytoskeleton 13.1 Overview of the Major Functions of the Cytoskeleton 13.2 Microtubules: Structure and Function Structure and Composition of Microtubules Microtubule‐Associated Proteins Microtubules as Structural Supports and Organizers Microtubules as Agents of Intracellular Motility 13.3 Motor Proteins: Kinesins and Dyneins Motor Proteins Traverse the Microtubular Cytoskeleton Kinesins Cytoplasmic Dynein 13.4 Microtubule‐Organizing Centers (MTOCs) Centrosomes Basal Bodies and Other MTOCs Microtubule Nucleation 13.5 Microtubule Dynamics The Dynamic Properties of Microtubules The Underlying Basis of Microtubule Dynamics 13.6 Cilia and Flagella: Structure and Function Structure of Cilia and Flagella Growth by Intraflagellar Transport The Mechanism of Ciliary and Flagellar Locomotion 13.7 Intermediate Filaments Intermediate Filament Assembly and Disassembly Types and Functions of Intermediate Filaments 13.8 Microfilaments Microfilament Structure Microfilament Assembly and Disassembly 13.9 Myosin: The Molecular Motor of Actin Filaments Conventional (Type II) Myosins Unconventional Myosins 13.10 Muscle Contractility Organization of Sarcomeres The Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction 13.11 Nonmuscle Motility Actin-Binding Proteins 13.12 Cellular Motility 13.13 Actin‐Dependent Processes During Development Axonal Outgrowth 13.14 The Bacterial Cytoskeleton The Human Perspective The Role of Cilia in Development and Disease Experimental Pathways I. The Step Size of Kinesin II. Studying Actin‐Based Motility without Cells 14 Cell Division 14.1 The Cell Cycle Phases of the Cell Cycle Cell Cycles in Vivo 14.2 Regulation of the Cell Cycle 14.3 Control of the Cell Cycle: The Role of Protein Kinases Cyclin Binding Cdk Phosphorylation/Dephosphorylation Cdk Inhibitors Controlled Proteolysis Subcellular Localization 14.4 Control of the Cell Cycle: Checkpoints, Cdk Inhibitors, and Cellular Responses 14.5 M Phase: Mitosis and Cytokinesis 14.6 Prophase Formation of the Mitotic Chromosome Centromeres and Kinetochores Formation of the Mitotic Spindle The Dissolution of the Nuclear Envelope and Partitioning of Cytoplasmic Organelles 14.7 Prometaphase 14.8 Metaphase 14.9 Anaphase The Role of Proteolysis in Progression through Mitosis The Events of Anaphase Forces Required for Chromosome Movements at Anaphase The Spindle Assembly Checkpoint 14.10 Telophase and Cytokinesis Motor Proteins Required for Mitotic Movements Cytokinesis Cytokinesis in Plant Cells: Formation of the Cell Plate 14.11 Meiosis 14.12 The Stages of Meiosis 14.13 Genetic Recombination during Meiosis The Human Perspective Meiotic Nondisjunction and Its Consequences Experimental Pathways The Discovery and Characterization of MPF 15 Cell Signaling Pathways 15.1 The Basic Elements of Cell Signaling Systems 15.2 A Survey of Extracellular Messengers and Their Receptors 15.3 Signal Transduction by G Protein-Coupled Receptors Receptors G Proteins Termination of the Response Bacterial Toxins 15.4 Second Messengers The Discovery of Cyclic AMP Phosphatidylinositol‐Derived Second Messengers Phospholipase C 15.5 The Specificity of G Protein‐Coupled Responses 15.6 Regulation of Blood Glucose Levels Glucose Mobilization: An Example of a Response Induced by cAMP Signal Amplification Other Aspects of cAMP Signal Transduction Pathways 15.7 The Role of GPCRs in Sensory Perception 15.8 Protein-Tyrosine Phosphorylation as a Mechanism for Signal Transduction Receptor Dimerization Protein Kinase Activation Phosphotyrosine‐Dependent Protein–Protein Interactions Activation of Downstream Signaling Pathways Ending the Response 15.9 The Ras‐MAP Kinase Pathway Accessory Proteins Adapting the MAP Kinase to Transmit Different Types of Information 15.10 Signaling by the Insulin Receptor The Insulin Receptor Is a Protein‐Tyrosine Kinase Insulin Receptor Substrates 1 and 2 Glucose Transport Diabetes Mellitus 15.11 Signaling Pathways in Plants 15.12 The Role of Calcium as an Intracellular Messenger IP3 and Voltage‐Gated Ca2+ Channels Visualizing Cytoplasmic Ca2+ Concentration in Living Cells Ca2+‐Binding Proteins Regulating Calcium Concentrations in Plant Cells 15.13 Convergence, Divergence, and Cross‐Talk among Different Signaling Pathways 15.14 The Role of NO as an Intercellular Messenger NO as an Activator of Guanylyl Cyclase Inhibiting Phosphodiesterase 15.15 Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death) The Extrinsic Pathway of Apoptosis The Intrinsic Pathway of Apoptosis Necroptosis Signaling Cell Survival The Human Perspective Disorders Associated with G Protein‐Coupled Receptors Experimental Pathways The Discovery and Characterization of GTP-Binding Proteins 16 Cancer 16.1 Basic Properties of a Cancer Cell 16.2 The Causes of Cancer 16.3 The Genetics of Cancer 16.4 An Overview of Tumor‐Suppressor Genes and Oncogenes 16.5 Tumor‐Suppressor Genes: The RB Gene 16.6 Tumor‐Suppressor Genes: The TP53 Gene The Role of p53: Guardian of the Genome The Role of p53 in Promoting Senescence 16.7 Other Tumor‐Suppressor Genes 16.8 Oncogenes Oncogenes That Encode Growth Factors or Their Receptors Oncogenes That Encode Cytoplasmic Protein Kinases Oncogenes That Encode Transcription Factors Oncogenes That Encode Proteins That Affect the Epigenetic State of Chromatin Oncogenes That Encode Metabolic Enzymes Oncogenes That Encode Products That Affect Apoptosis 16.9 The Mutator Phenotype: Mutant Genes Involved in DNA Repair 16.10 MicroRNAs: A New Player in the Genetics of Cancer 16.11 The Cancer Genome 16.12 Gene‐Expression Analysis 16.13 Strategies for Combating Cancer 16.14 Immunotherapy 16.15 Inhibiting the Activity of Cancer‐Promoting Proteins 16.16 The Concept of a Cancer Stem Cell 16.17 Inhibiting the Formation of New Blood Vessels (Angiogenesis) Experimental Pathways The Discovery of Oncogenes 17 Immunity 17.1 An Overview of the Immune Response Innate Immune Responses Adaptive Immune Responses 17.2 The Clonal Selection Theory as It Applies to B Cells 17.3 Vaccination 17.4 T Lymphocytes: Activation and Mechanism of Action 17.5 The Modular Structure of Antibodies 17.6 DNA Rearrangements That Produce Genes Encoding B‐ and T‐Cell Antigen Receptors 17.7 Membrane‐Bound Antigen Receptor Complexes 17.8 The Major Histocompatibility Complex 17.9 Distinguishing Self from Nonself 17.10 Lymphocytes Are Activated by Cell‐Surface Signals Activation of Helper T Cells by Professional APCs Activation of B Cells by TH Cells 17.11 Signal Transduction Pathways in Lymphocyte Activation The Human Perspective Autoimmune Diseases Experimental Pathways The Role of the Major Histocompatibility Complex in Antigen Presentation 18 Techniques in Cell and Molecular Biology 18.1 The Light Microscope Resolution Visibility 18.2 Bright‐Field and Phase‐Contrast Microscopy Bright‐Field Light Microscopy Phase‐Contrast Microscopy 18.3 Fluorescence Microscopy (and Related Fluorescence‐Based Techniques) Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy Super‐Resolution Fluorescence Microscopy Light Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy 18.4 Transmission Electron Microscopy 18.5 Specimen Preparation for Electron Microscopy Cryofixation and the Use of Frozen Specimens Negative Staining Shadow Casting Freeze‐Fracture Replication and Freeze Etching 18.6 Scanning Electron Microscopy 18.7 Atomic Force Microscopy 18.8 The Use of Radioisotopes 18.9 Cell Culture 18.10 The Fractionation of a Cell’s Contents by Differential Centrifugation 18.11 Purification and Characterization of Proteins by Liquid Column Chromatography Ion‐Exchange Chromatography Gel Filtration Chromatography Affinity Chromatography 18.12 Determining Protein–Protein Interactions 18.13 Characterization of Proteins by Polyacrylamide Gel Electrophoresis SDS–PAGE Two‐Dimensional Gel Electrophoresis 18.14 Characterization of Proteins by Spectrometry 18.15 Characterization of Proteins by Mass Spectrometry 18.16 Determining the Structure of Proteins and Multisubunit Complexes 18.17 Fractionation of Nucleic Acids Separation of DNAs by Gel Electrophoresis Separation of Nucleic Acids by Ultracentrifugation 18.18 Nucleic Acid Hybridization 18.19 Chemical Synthesis of DNA 18.20 Recombinant DNA Technology Restriction Endonucleases Formation of Recombinant DNAs DNA Cloning 18.21 Enzymatic Amplification of DNA by PCR Process of PCR Applications of PCR 18.22 DNA Sequencing 18.23 DNA Libraries Genomic Libraries cDNA Libraries 18.24 DNA Transfer into Eukaryotic Cells and Mammalian Embryos Transgenic Animals Transgenic Plants 18.25 Gene Editing and Silencing In Vitro Mutagenesis Knockout Mice RNA Interference Genome Editing Using Engineered Nucleases 18.26 The Use of Antibodies Glossary Additional Reading Index EULA