دانلود کتاب Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades

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Cover Cover Page Title page Copyright page Dedication Preface: The Power of Change Changing People Changing Environments Personal Changes Understanding Change What Makes this Book Unique? Context and Culture Developmental Cascades Research Methods Dedicated Chapter on Language Development in Infancy Features Scope and Organization Learning Tools Chapter-Opening Tools Midchapter Tools End-of-Chapter Tools The Oxford Digital Difference Oxford Insight Courseware Ancillaries for Instructors Oxford Learning Link Suggested Answers to “Check Your Understanding” Questions Instructor’s Manual Lecture PowerPoints Figure PowerPoints Concepts in Action Real-Time Class Participation Activities Test Bank Acknowledgements Reviewers for Child Development: Context, Culture, and Cascades About the Author Table of Contents Part 1 Foundations 1 Goals, Theories, and Methods ■ The Goals of Developmental Science Describing Development Quantitative vs. Qualitative Change: Coral Reef Fish or Frogs? Differences among Children in Development Developmental Stability Explaining Development Genes and Environment: The Nature-Nurture Seesaw Developmental Cascades Cascades within Time Cascades over Time Applying Developmental Science Raising Children Programs and Policies ■ Theoretical Orientations Foundational Theories Evolutionary Theory Psychodynamic Theories Freud’s Psychosexual Stage Theory Erikson’s Psychosocial Stage Theory Behaviorism Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Constructivism: Piaget’s Stage Theory Qualitative Stages Schemas Moving through the Stages Lev Vygotsky and the Origins of Sociocultural Theory Contemporary Theories Nativist Approaches Social Learning Theory Information Processing Theories Developmental Systems Theory Bioecological Theories Sociocultural Theories What Is Culture? Children’s Cultural Environment Cultural Universals ■ Research in Developmental Science Conducting Research Hypothesis-Driven Research and the Scientific Method Discovery-Based Science Sampling Methods: Gathering Data Interviews and Surveys Observations Physiological Assessments Study Designs Correlational Studies Experiments Longitudinal Studies Cross-Sectional Studies Cohort-Sequential Studies Microgenetic Studies Behavioral Genetic Studies Ensuring Scientific Rigor and Integrity Validity Reliability Scientific Replicability and Transparency Ethics in Research ■ Closing Thoughts Setting the Stage ■ Chapter Summary The Goals of Developmental Science Describing Development Explaining Development Applying Developmental Science Theoretical Orientations Foundational Theories Contemporary Theories Conducting Research Ensuring Scientific Rigor and Integrity Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 2 Heredity, Environment, and the Brain ■ Genetics and the Environment Genetic Foundations Chromosomes, DNA, and Genes From Gametes to Human Beings Sex Chromosomes Alleles, Phenotypes, and Genotypes Mutations Neutral Mutations Positive Mutations Negative Mutations Mixed Mutations Decoding the Genome The Microbiome Contexts of Environmental Influences on Gene Expression How Do Genes and Environment Interact? Epigenetic Principles: From Animals to Humans Summing Up: The Library Metaphor ■ The Brain Brain Anatomy and Function Forebrain Four Lobes Specialized Functions in the Right and Left Hemispheres Subcortical Structures Midbrain and Hindbrain Neurons and Glial Cells New Ways to Study the Brain Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) Electroencephalography (EEG) Magnetoencephalography (MEG) Positron Emission Tomography (PET) Near-Infrared Spectroscopy (NIRS) Brain Development How the Brain Changes Neurogenesis Migration Synaptogenesis Myelination Synaptic Pruning Periods of Brain Development Contexts and the Brain Experience-Expectant Plasticity Visual Stimulation and Experience-Expectant Plasticity Language Exposure and Experience-Expectant Plasticity Brain Development in Atypical Populations Experience-Dependent Plasticity Timing of Experience Critical Periods versus Sensitive Periods in Brain Development Reasons for Sensitive Periods Flexibility of Sensitive Periods Looking to the Future Developmental Cascades Responding to Experiences: Dandelions and Orchids Susceptibility to Addiction Response to Maltreatment ■ Closing Thoughts Dismantling the Nature-Nurture Controversy ■ Chapter Summary Genetic Foundations Contexts of Environmental Influences on Gene Expression Brain Anatomy and Function Brain Development Contexts and the Brain Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 3 Prenatal and Postnatal Health and Physical Development ■ Conception and Prenatal Development Conception Influences on Conception Man’s Reproductive Health Woman’s Reproductive Health Timing Fertility Treatments Prenatal Development Germinal Period Blastocyst Embryonic Disk and Trophoblast Embryonic Period The Growing Embryo From Stem Cells to Specialized Cells Fetal Period Fetal Growth and Brain Development Fetal Movement Sleep-Wake Cycles Breathing, Swallowing, Taste, and Smell Hearing Contextual Influences on Prenatal Development Teratogens Illicit Drugs Alcohol Environmental Teratogens Infectious Disease Maternal Exercise and Nutrition Exercise Nutrition and Fetal Development Adaptive Response? Isolating Effects Maternal Prenatal Care Maternal Psychological Functioning Depression Stress Adaptive Response? ■ Birth and Infant Health Labor and Birth Stages of Labor First Stage of Labor Second Stage of Labor Third Stage of Labor Neonatal Health Birth Complications Birth Weight Oxygen Deprivation Contextual Influences on Infant Mortality and Birth Weight Infant Brain Development Growth in the Brain Bidirectionality and Brain Specialization Infant Sleep and Nutrition Sleep Types of Sleep Sleep-Wake Cycles Functions of Sleep Cultural Context of Infant Sleep Sleeping through the Night Co-sleeping Nutrition and Breastfeeding Breastfeeding Benefits Challenges to “Breast is Best” Context and Culture in Breastfeeding Developmental Cascades Cascades from Fetal Movement Cascades from Fetal Auditory Experiences Cascades from Maternal Stress Cascades from Infant Birth Weight Cascades from Parenting and Protective Factors ■ Closing Thoughts The Dynamics of Development ■ Chapter Summary Conception Prenatal Development Contextual Influences on Prenatal Development Labor and Birth Infant Sleep and Nutrition Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms Part 2 Infancy and Toddlerhood 4 Perceptual and Motor Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood ■ Perceptual Development The Study of Perception in Infants Early Theories The Ecological Theory of Perception Environments Contain an Abundance of Information Perceptual Systems and Bodies Have Evolved to Use Sensory Input Gauging Affordances for Action Methods for Studying Infant Perception Preferential-Looking Tests Habituation-Recovery Tests Contingent Reinforcement Studies New Methods, New Insights Tasting and Smelling Taste and Odor Preferences Contexts of Taste Perception Looking Acuity and Contrast Visual Acuity Contrast Sensitivity Perceiving Colors Size and Shape Constancy Perceiving Objects as “Whole” Tracking Motion and Actions Perceiving Depth Face Perception Contexts of Face Perception Male and Female Faces Race Hearing Loudness and Pitch Perceiving Music Perceiving Speech From Perception to Meaning: Integration and Categorization Perceptual Integration Categorization ■ Motor Development The Study of Motor Development in Infants Gesell and the Concept of Motor Milestones Myrtle McGraw and Motor Practice Esther Thelen and Dynamic Systems Developments in Infant Motor Skill Posture Sitting Reaching, Grasping, and Tool Use Judging Distance Controlling Hands Play and Tool Use Locomoting: Crawling, Cruising, Walking Crawling Cruising Walking Contexts of Motor Development Home Context of Motor Development Back Sleeping Physical Layouts of Homes Cultural Context of Motor Development Cultural Practices That Facilitate Motor Skills Cultural Practices That Hinder Motor Skills Interpreting Cultural Differences Developmental Cascades Cascades from Perceptual Development Cascades from Motor Development Sitting and Manual Skills Locomotion ■ Closing Thoughts The Engines of Learning and Development ■ Chapter Summary The Study of Perception in Infants Tasting and Smelling Looking Hearing From Perception to Meaning: Integration and Categorization The Study of Motor Development in Infants Developments in Infant Motor Skill Contexts of Motor Development Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 5 Cognitive Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood ■ Learning about the Physical World Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Sensorimotor Substages 1–5 Reflexes and Spontaneous Movements: Birth to 1 Month Primary Circular Reactions: 1–4 Months Secondary Circular Reactions: 4–8 Months Coordination of Secondary Circular Reactions: 8–12 Months Tertiary Circular Reactions: 12–18 Months Mental Representation (Sensorimotor Substage 6): 18–24 Months Deferred Imitation Language and Symbolic Play Object Permanence Challenges to Piaget That Inspired New Theoretical Orientations Nativist Tests of Infant Core Capacities Infant Understanding of Object Permanence Infant Understanding of Solidity and Substance Infant Understanding of Gravity and Support Testing Core Capacity for Understanding Number Challenges to Nativism Developmental Systems Insights into Cognitive Performance Modifying the A-not-B Task Changing Sensory Feedback Information Processing: Attention in Cognition Phases of Attention Selective Attention Stimuli that Elicit Attention Infant Control of Attention Is Infants’ Lack of Selective Attention Adaptive? Processing Information Memory Habituation-Recovery Studies Conjugate Mobile Experiments Deferred Imitation Tasks Contexts of Cognitive Development Home Context of Cognitive Development Measuring the Home Environment Parent-Infant Interactions Socioeconomic Context of Cognitive Development Cultural Context of Cognitive Development ■ Learning about the Social World Understanding Others’ Attention Gaze Following and Joint Attention Pointing Understanding Others’ Actions, Knowledge, and Beliefs Interpreting Actions Imitating Actions Inferring Knowledge and Beliefs Contexts of Social Cognition Home Context of Social Cognition Cultural Context of Social Cognition Developmental Cascades Cascades from Cognitive Development Cascades from Social Cognition ■ Closing Thoughts Looking into the Mind of an Infant ■ Chapter Summary Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development Nativist Tests of Infant Core Capacities Developmental Systems Insights into Cognitive Performance Information Processing: Attention in Cognition Contexts of Cognitive Development Understanding Others’ Attention Understanding Others’ Actions, Knowledge, and Beliefs Contexts of Social Cognition Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 6 Language Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood ■ Describing Language Development Phonological Development: Learning Speech Sounds Perceiving and Discriminating among the Phonemes of One’s Language Identifying the Phonemes that Comprise Words Producing Sounds Crying Coos, Babbles, and Words Effects of Hearing Loss Semantic Development: Learning Word Meaning Receptive Language Productive Language Syntactic Development: Putting Words Together Understanding Sentences and Syntactic Bootstrapping The Path to Producing Sentences Pragmatic Development: Learning Communication Norms Turn Taking Attention to Nonverbal Social Cues Gestures Gaze ■ Explaining Language Development Nativist Accounts of Language Development Universal Grammar and the LAD Cognitive Biases Deaf Children and Sign Language Language Learning Milestones of Deaf Children Deaf Children’s Spontaneous Signing Critical Periods and the Case of Genie Connectionist and Dynamic Systems Theory Connectionist Theory Dynamic Systems Theory The Active Child Detecting Regularities in the Input Sociocultural Theory Scaffolding Can Infants Learn Language from Screens? Contexts of Language Development Family Context of Language Development Infant-Directed Speech Amount and Diversity of Speech to Infants Contingent Responsiveness Physical Cues to Meaning Routines around Literacy Socioeconomic Context of Language Development Childcare Context of Language Development Multilingual Context of Language Development Similar Language Processes Unique Language Processes Cultural Context of Language Development Communicative Accommodation Channels of Communication Developmental Cascades Language Development Influences Cognitive Development Language Development and Thought Language Development and Processing Speed Language Development and Executive Control Language Development Influences Later School Success ■ Closing Thoughts Language Development is Much More than Language ■ Chapter Summary Phonological Development: Learning Speech Sounds Semantic Development: Learning Word Meaning Syntactic Development: Putting Words Together Pragmatic Development: Learning Communication Norms Nativist Accounts of Language Development Connectionist and Dynamic Systems Theory Sociocultural Theory Contexts of Language Development Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 7 Emotional and Social Development in Infancy and Toddlerhood ■ Emotional Development Evolutionary Theory and the Functions of Emotions Are Emotions Universal? Are Emotions Adaptive? Expressing Emotions Infant Positive Emotions Infant Negative Emotions Anger Fear Self-Conscious Emotions Understanding Emotions Discriminating Emotions Using Emotional Information Regulating Emotions Development of Infant Emotion Regulation Effortful Control Temperament The History of Temperament Studies Contemporary Models of Temperament Stability in Temperament Social and Cultural Contexts of Emotional Development and Temperament Contexts of Infant Temperament and Goodness of Fit Parenting Context of Emotional Development Parental Emotional Expressivity Parental Depression and Anxiety Parental Sensitivity and Synchrony Parental Cell Phone Use and Emotional Development Cultural Context of Emotional Development Culture and Infant Temperament Culture and the Perceptions of Emotions ■ Social Development Attachment Evolutionary Views of Attachment Bowlby’s Ethological Theory of Attachment Harlow’s Monkeys Ainsworth and the Strange Situation Contexts of Attachment Parenting Context of Attachment Cultural Context of Attachment Parent Expectations and Practices Child-Care Structure and Arrangements Peer Relations and the Origins of Morality Prosocial Behaviors Moral Development and Aggression Moral Goodness Moral Understanding and Evaluation Moral Retribution Aggression Self-Identity Aspects of Self The Ecological and Interpersonal Selves The Objective Self Contexts of Self-Identity Gender Socialization: Home Context Gender Socialization: Cultural Context Developmental Cascades Emotion Regulation and Language Learning Emotion Regulation and Preschool Learning Emotion Regulation and Later Social Functioning Attachment and Later Adjustment ■ Closing Thoughts Cultivating Emotional and Social Competence ■ Chapter Summary Evolutionary Theory and the Functions of Emotions Expressing Emotions Understanding Emotions Regulating Emotions Temperament Social and Cultural Contexts of Emotional Development and Temperament Attachment Contexts of Attachment Peer Relations and the Origins of Morality Self-Identity Contexts of Self-Identity Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms Part 3 Early Childhood 8 Physical Development and Health in Early Childhood ■ Physical Development Brain, Physical, and Motor Development Brain Development Growth in Synaptic Connections Brain Lateralization and Handedness Corpus Callosum Prefrontal Cortex Cerebellum Limbic System Physical and Motor Development Changing Bodies Changing Motor Skills Home Context of Brain Development Cultural and Historical Context of Physical Growth ■ Health Nutrition Food Acceptance and Healthy Diets Avoidance and Acceptance of New Foods Healthy and Balanced Diets Childhood Obesity Family Context of Nutrition Access to Foods Emotional Climate at Mealtime Modeling Healthy Eating Sleep Developmental Changes in Sleep Patterns How Much Sleep Do Young Children Need? Family Context of Sleep Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment Infectious Diseases Chronic Diseases Unintentional Childhood Injury Maltreatment and Exposure to Violence Stress Positive Stress Tolerable Stress Toxic Stress Family Context of Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment Economic Resources Access to Healthcare Family Views and Practices around Vaccinations Neighborhood Context and Lead Exposure Cultural Context of Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment Developmental Cascades Cascades from Sleep Deprivation Sleep and Academic and Behavioral Outcomes Sleep and Obesity Cascades from Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment ■ Closing Thoughts Promotion and Prevention ■ Chapter Summary Brain, Physical, and Motor Development Nutrition Sleep Childhood Illness, Injury, and Maltreatment Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 9 Cognitive and Language Development in Early Childhood ■ Cognitive Development Piaget and the Preoperational Stage Cognitive Achievements in the Preoperational Period Symbolic Understanding Pretend and Fantasy Play Cognitive Limitations Egocentrism Animistic Thinking Conservation Appearance Reality Hierarchical Classification Causal Understanding Cultural Context of Cognitive Development Cognitive Development from an Information-Processing Perspective Executive Functioning Inhibitory Control Cognitive Flexibility Working Memory Planning Strategies for Remembering Self-Monitoring The Semantic Piece of Long-Term Memory Developmental Changes in Semantic Memory Semantic Memory Aids Working Memory Episodic Memory Infantile Amnesia Forgetting Developmental Changes in Episodic Memory False Memories Family Context of Information Processing Preschool Context of Information Processing Cultural Context of Information Processing ■ Social-Cognitive Development Evaluating People’s Knowledge and Expertise Reliability, Trustworthiness, and Familiarity Weighing Familiarity against Reliability Theory of Mind False-Belief Understanding Explaining Development in Children’s Theory of Mind Theory-Theory Executive Functioning Brain Development Lying, Deception, and Persuasion Contexts of Social-Cognitive Development Family Context of Social-Cognitive Development School Context of Social-Cognitive Development Cultural Context of Social-Cognitive Development ■ Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding Growing Language Skills Phonology and Semantics Improvements in Phonology Improvements in Semantics Grammar Morphology: Modifying Word Meaning Joining Clauses Learning Grammar Takes Time: Rules of Syntax Overregularizations in Grammar Pragmatics Literacy and Mathematical Understanding Emergent Literacy: Reading and Writing Emergent Math Contexts: Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding Home Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding Caregiver Talk to Children Book Sharing and Literacy Experiences Parent Engagement of Children in Math-Related Activities Family Socioeconomic Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Skills Preschool Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding Teacher Quality Curriculum Cultural Context of Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding Book Reading and Reminiscing across Cultural Communities Oral Storytelling across Cultural Communities Cultural Context of Language Features: Associations to Math and Spatial Cognition Mathematical Practices across Cultural Communities Developmental Cascades Cascades to Academic Domains Cascades to Social Domains Language and Social Competence Theory of Mind and Social Relationships ■ Closing Thoughts Preventing Inequities at the Starting Gate ■ Chapter Summary Piaget and the Preoperational Stage Cognitive Development from an Information-Processing Perspective Evaluating People’s Knowledge and Expertise Theory of Mind Contexts of Social-Cognitive Development Growing Language Skills Literacy and Mathematical Understanding Contexts: Language, Literacy, and Mathematical Understanding Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 10 Emotional and Social Development in Early Childhood ■ Emotional Development Emotion Understanding Complex and Mixed Emotions The Causes and Consequences of Emotions Emotion Regulation and Temperament Emotion and Behavior Regulation Individual Differences in Temperament Contexts of Emotional Development Parenting Context of Emotional Development Sensitive Responses to Emotions Insensitive Responses to Emotions Sibling Context of Emotional Development School Context of Emotional Development Teachers School Quality and Curriculum Cultural Context of Emotional Development ■ Social Development Attachment and Caregiver-Child Relationship Quality Assessing Attachment in Young Children Attachment and Quality of Parenting Peers and Friends Play with Peers and Friends Prosocial Behaviors Conflict and Aggression Family Context of Social Skills and Aggression Parental Sensitivity Corporal Punishment Household Chaos and Media Violence Cultural Context of Social Development Identity Development Gender Identity Psychodynamic View Social Learning View Cognitive Developmental View Gender Nonconforming Children Family Context of Gender Development Play Interactions Language Interactions Division of Household Labor and Television Viewing Biological Context of Gender Development Ethnic and Racial Identities Children’s Understanding of Ethnic and Racial Identities Children’s Stereotypes and Discrimination around Race Family Context and Racial and Ethnic Identity Types of Racial and Ethnic Socialization Messages How Messages Change with Children’s Age Egalitarianism versus “Color-Blind” Ideologies Moral Development Psychodynamic View: Freud and the Id Cognitive Developmental View: Piaget and Kohlberg Social Domain View The Moral Domain The Psychological Domain The Societal Domain Morality and Intergroup Relationships Family Context of Moral Development Cultural Cosntext of Moral Development Developmental Cascades Cascades from Emotion Understanding Cascades from Emotion Regulation Cascades from Attachment and Peer Relationships Cascades from Moral Development ■ Closing Thoughts Development Starts Small ■ Chapter Summary Emotion Understanding Emotion Regulation and Temperament Contexts of Emotional Development Attachment and Caregiver-Child Relationship Quality Peers and Friends Identity Development Moral Development Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms Part 4 Middle Childhood 11 Physical Development and Health in Middle Childhood ■ Brain and Physical Development Brain Development Changes to White and Gray Matter Changes to Brain Networks Coordination across Brain Regions Family Context and Brain Development Physical Development Gross Motor Skills . Fine Motor Skills Sex Differences in Physical Growth and Motor Skills Contexts of Physical Development School Context and Physical Activity Neighborhood Context and Physical Activity Cultural Context and Physical Activity ■ Health Nutrition Food Insecurity Overweight and Obesity Contexts of Nutrition Family Context Neighborhood Context School Context Policy and Program Contexts of Nutrition Sleep How Much Sleep do Children Need? Sleep Problems in Middle Childhood Family Context of Sleep Disease and Injury Infectious Diseases Chronic Diseases and Disorders Asthma Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Injuries Motor Vehicle and Bicycle Injuries Injuries from Team Sports Preventing Injury Developmental Cascades Cascades from Brain Development Cascades to Cognition and Intelligence Cascades to Emotional Development Cascades from Physical Activity Cascades from Food Insufficiency and Malnutrition Cascades from Obesity Cascades from Sleep Sleep and School Performance Sleep and Overweight Status Cascades from Chronic Disease ■ Closing Thoughts Stability and Change ■ Chapter Summary Brain Development Physical Development Nutrition Sleep Disease and Injury Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 12 Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood ■ Cognitive Development Piagetian Theory Concrete Operational Thought Conservation Classification Seriation Perspective Taking Inductive Reasoning Limitations in Concrete Operational Thought Information Processing Attention Selective Attention Cognitive Flexibility Planning Working Memory and Processing Speed Metacognition and Memory Strategies Monitoring Performance Strategies for Remembering Semantic Memory: A Growing Knowledge Base Episodic and Autobiographical Memory ■ Intelligence and Individual Differences Defining Intelligence A Single Mental Ability Multiple Abilities Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences Robert Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence The Strengths and Limitations of Theories of Multiple Intelligences Measuring Intelligence The History of Intelligence Testing Francis Galton Alfred Binet David Wechsler Reliability, Validity, and Bias of Intelligence Tests Nature and Nurture in Intelligence The Heritability of Intelligence Environmental Influences on Intelligence Academic Skills: Language, Literacy, and Math Vocabulary and Grammar Reading and Writing Inside-Out and Outside-In Reading Skills Teaching Reading Writing Technology and Literacy Math Basic Math Problems and Changing Strategies Understanding Math Concepts Motivation Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Mindsets Views of Intelligence Contexts of Cognitive Development and Academic Achievement Family Context and Cognitive Development School Context and Cognitive Development The Curriculum Quality of Instruction Design of Instruction Teacher Expectations Classroom Climate and Class Size Bilingual Education Cultural Context and Cognitive Development Cultural Tools Culture and Schooling Culture and Approaches to Teaching Developmental Cascades Cascades from Academics to Later School Performance Cascades from Academics to Social Relationships Cascading Effects in Children with Disabilities ■ Closing Thoughts Thinking about Thinking ■ Chapter Summary Piagetian Theory Information Processing Defining Intelligence Measuring Intelligence Nature and Nurture in Intelligence Academic Skills: Language, Literacy, and Math Motivation Contexts of Cognitive Development and Academic Achievement Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 13 Emotional and Social Development in Middle Childhood ■ Emotional Development Understanding Emotions Self-Conscious Emotions: Guilt, Shame, and Pride Guilt and Shame Pride The Causes and Consequences of Emotions Theory of Mind and Moral Reasoning Expressing and Regulating Emotions Display Rules and Regulating Emotions Emotional Coping Contexts of Emotional Development Family Context of Emotional Development Parents as Models Parent Responses to Children’s Emotions Physical Punishment and Maltreatment Sibling Relationships Peer Context of Emotional Development Cultural Context of Emotional Development Cultures Differ on the Meaning of Specific Emotions Cultures Differ in Norms around Emotional Expression ■ Social Development Self-Identity Development Erik Erikson’s Theory Evaluating Self Gender Identity Gender Stereotypes Gender Stereotypes Concerning Status and Occupation Gender-Stereotype Flexibility The Affective Dimension of Gender Identity Ethnic and Racial Identities Developing Ethnic and Racial Identities Ethnic and Racial Stereotypes Attitudes toward the In-Group and Out-Group Awareness of Bias Intergroup Relations and Moral Development Contexts of Self-Identity Development Family Context and Gender Self-Identity Family and School Contexts and Racial and Ethnic Self-Identity Peer and Media Contexts and Gender Self-Identity Relationships with Parents Attachment Parenting Styles Relationships with Peers Friendships Mutuality in Friendships Functions of Friendships Similarities among Friends Conflict in Friendships Peer Acceptance and Rejection Measuring Acceptance and Rejection Popular Children Rejected Children Controversial Children Neglected Children The Pain of Exclusion Contexts of Social Development Family and School Contexts of Social Development Social Media Context of Social Development Cultural Context of Social Development Developmental Cascades Cascades from Emotional Development Cascades from Self-Identity Cascades from Gender Self-Identity Cascades from Peer Acceptance and Rejection Cascades as Illustrated through a 20-Year Study ■ Closing Thoughts Vulnerabilities and Strengths ■ Chapter Summary Understanding Emotions Expressing and Regulating Emotions Contexts of Emotional Development Self-Identity Development Contexts of Self-Identity Development Relationships with Parents Relationships with Peers Contexts of Social Development Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms Part 5 Adolescence 14 Physical Development and Health in Adolescence ■ Physical and Brain Development Brain Development Synaptogenesis, Pruning, and Myelination Changes to Gray Matter Changes to White Matter Asymmetry in Brain Development Limbic System Neurotransmitters Autonomic Nervous System Puberty Primary and Secondary Sex Characteristics The Growth Spurt Injuries Hormones Stages of Puberty Pubertal Timing and Adolescent Adjustment Mechanisms of Influence Home Context of Puberty Cultural Context of Puberty Cultural Reactions to Puberty Cultural Traditions around Puberty Preparing Adolescents for Adulthood Emergence of Sexual Behavior Learning about Sexuality and Engaging in Sex Peer Context of Sexuality Cultural Context of Sexuality ■ Health Sexually Transmitted Infections and Pregnancy Sexually Transmitted Infections Pregnancy and Parenthood in Adolescence Adolescent Pregnancy Rates Consequences of Adolescent Parenthood for the Infant Consequences of Adolescent Parenthood for Girls Consequences of Adolescent Parenthood for Boys Contexts of Adolescent Pregnancy Nutrition Eating Disorders Anorexia Nervosa Bulimia Nervosa Prevalence Rates for Eating Disorders Overweight or Obese Prevalence Rates of Obesity Nutrition and Exercise Contexts of Eating Disorders and Obesity Family Context Ethnicity and Racial Context Neighborhood Context Sleep Circadian Rhythm Too Little Sleep Poor-Quality Sleep Contexts of Sleep Technology Context School Context Cultural Context Developmental Cascades Cascades from Brain Development Brain Cascades to Cognitive Development Brain Cascades to Risk Taking Brain Bases of Depression and Anxiety Cascades from Pubertal Timing Cascades from Overweight and Obesity ■ Closing Thoughts Primed to Learn ■ Chapter Summary Brain Development Puberty Emergence of Sexual Behavior Sexually Transmitted Infections and Pregnancy Nutrition Sleep Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 15 Cognitive Development in Adolescence ■ Cognitive Development Piagetian Theory Abstract and Propositional Thinking Hypothetical-Deductive Reasoning Combination of Liquids Problem Pendulum Problem Rethinking the Formal Operational Stage Information Processing Selective Attention and Flexibility Working Memory and Processing Speed Memory Strategies and Metacognition Changes in Memory Strategies Metacognition Social Cognition Perspective Taking Adolescent Egocentrism Moral Reasoning Moral Behavior Cultural Context of Adolescent Cognitive Development Cultural Tools and Activities Culture and Schooling ■ Language, Literacy, and Academic Skills Language and Literacy Development Vocabulary and Grammar Reading and Writing Gender Differences in Academic Proficiencies Gendered Socialization Cultural Messages School Engagement and Motivation Components of School Engagement Academic Motivation and Performance Lack of Motivation Undermines Engagement and Performance Choice Matters Explaining Motivation Mindsets and Goal Orientations Expectations for Success Task Value Test Anxiety Contexts of Academic Achievement Family and Peer Context of Academic Achievement School Context of Academic Achievement Quality of the Teacher-Student Relationship Stereotype Threat Experiences of Discrimination Neighborhood Context of Academic Achievement Developmental Cascades Cascading Effects of Cognitive Development on Civic Engagement Cascading Effects of Academic Motivation on Life Trajectories Cascading Effects of School Dropout Preventing School Dropout ■ Closing Thoughts The Blurred Boundary between Ability and Performance ■ Chapter Summary Piagetian Theory Information Processing Social Cognition Cultural Context of Adolescent Cognitive Development Language and Literacy Development School Engagement and Motivation Contexts of Academic Achievement Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms 16 Emotional and Social Development in Adolescence ■ Emotional Development Emotional Experiences Emotional Reactivity Emotional Valence Adolescent Depression Sex Differences in Depression Diagnosing Depression Treating Depression Self-Regulation Development of Adolescent Self-Regulation Development of Risk Taking Contexts of Emotional Development Family and Peer Contexts of Emotional Development School and Neighborhood Contexts of Emotional Development ■ Self-Identity Development Erik Erikson’s Theory Identity Achievement versus Role Confusion The Psychosocial Moratorium James Marcia and Identity Statuses Marcia’s Identity Statuses Adolescent Self-Esteem Ethnic and Racial Identity Development of Ethnic Identity Navigating Two Identities Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation Gender Identity Sexual Orientation Romantic Relationships Dating and Sexual Activity The Blurred Boundaries of Romantic Relationships Developmental Changes in Romantic Relationships Contexts of Self-Identity Family Context of Self-Identity School Context of Self-Identity Cultural Context of Self-Identity ■ Social Relationships Relationships with Parents and Siblings Closeness and Attachment to Parents Conflict with Parents Parental Monitoring and Adolescent Disclosure Siblings A Special Relationship Adolescent Sibling Relationships Immigrant Context of the Adolescent-Parent Relationship Relationships with Peers Friendships Cliques and Crowds Bullying Social Media Benefits of Social Media Use Overuse of Social Media Disclosing Too Much Information Why Do Some Teens Divulge Too Much? Dangerous Encounters Developmental Cascades Cascades from Adolescent Depression and Self-Esteem Cascades from Relationships with Parents Cascades from Relationships with Peers Social Isolation and Substance Use Victimization ■ Closing Thoughts Positive Cascades ■ Chapter Summary Emotional Experiences Self-Regulation Contexts of Emotional Development Erik Erikson’s Theory James Marcia and Identity Statuses Ethnic and Racial Identity Gender Identity and Sexual Orientation Contexts of Self-Identity Relationships with Parents and Siblings Relationships with Peers Social Media Developmental Cascades Thinking Like a Developmentalist List of Key Terms Glossary References Chapter 1 Chapter 2 Chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 Chapter 6 Chapter 7 Chapter 8 Chapter 9 Chapter 10 Chapter 11 Chapter 12 Chapter 13 Chapter 14 Chapter 15 Chapter 16 Index List of Illustrations List of Tables