دانلود کتاب Climate Change, Ozone Depletion and Air Pollution: Legal Commentaries with Policy and Science Considerations

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Contents ......Page 8
Preface......Page 16
Abbreviations......Page 18
Official Citations for Meeting Reports......Page 22
Legal Instruments Cited in this Book......Page 24
Part I: Science and Analysis......Page 26
A. The Ozone Layer......Page 28
B. The Destruction of the Ozone Layer......Page 29
C. The Future of the Ozone Layer......Page 33
2. Climate Change......Page 34
A. Historical Greenhouse Gas Concentrations......Page 35
B. Increasing Greenhouse Gas Concentrations......Page 36
C. Future Temperature Predictions......Page 38
D. The Warming World......Page 40
A. Chloro-fluorocarbons......Page 44
B. Halons......Page 49
D. Carbon tetrachloride......Page 50
E. Methyl Chloroform......Page 51
F. Hydro-chloro-fluoro Carbons......Page 52
H. Methyl bromide......Page 53
I. New Chemicals......Page 55
J. Overlapping Climate Change Gases......Page 56
A. Carbon Dioxide......Page 59
(i) Oceans......Page 60
(ii) Terrestrial Ecosystems......Page 64
(iii) Sources and Amounts of Anthropogenic Emissions of CO2......Page 67
(iv) Two Views of Contribution: Sovereign and Per-capita Emissions......Page 69
B. Methane......Page 72
C. Nitrous Dioxide......Page 74
(i) Aerosols......Page 75
(ii) Ozone Depleting Substances......Page 76
A. Sulphur Dioxide......Page 78
B. Suspended Particle Matter......Page 82
C. Oxides of Nitrogen......Page 84
D. Low-level Ozone......Page 85
E. Volatile Organic Carbons......Page 87
F. Carbon Monoxide......Page 88
G. Ammonia......Page 90
H. Lead......Page 91
I. The Transboundary Nature of Air Pollution......Page 92
1. Ozone Depletion......Page 94
2. Climate Change......Page 96
3. Air Pollution......Page 97
1. Cumulative Approaches......Page 100
2. Pollution Potential......Page 102
3. Reporting Considerations and Anomalies......Page 106
A. Impacts upon Humans......Page 112
B. Impacts upon the Environment......Page 118
C. Impacts upon the Cultural Environment......Page 122
A. Impacts upon Humans......Page 123
B. Impacts upon the Environment......Page 126
3. Climate Change......Page 128
A. Food......Page 130
C. Increases in Sea Levels and Coastal Stress......Page 133
D. Storms, Cyclones and Tornadoes......Page 137
E. Heat-waves and Disease......Page 139
(i) The Poles......Page 140
(ii) The Cryosphere......Page 142
(iii) Forests, Coral Reefs and Deserts......Page 144
(iv) Wildlife......Page 145
E. Climatic Surprise......Page 146
1. Critical Loads for Air Pollution......Page 148
3. Ecological Limits and Climatic Change......Page 151
1. Air Pollution......Page 156
2. Ozone Depletion......Page 160
A. The International Endeavour......Page 162
3. Climatic Change......Page 165
A. The International Scientific Study into Climate Change......Page 169
1. The Air Pollution and Climate Change Regimes......Page 176
2. The Ozone Regime and the Precautionary Principle......Page 177
Part II: Law......Page 184
A. The International Response to Ozone Depletion......Page 186
B. Targeted Restrictions on Ozone Depleting Substances......Page 187
(i) Chlorofluorocarbons......Page 188
(ii) Halons......Page 191
(iii) Methyl Chloroform & Carbon Tetrachloride......Page 192
(v) Methyl Bromide......Page 193
(vi) Hydro-chloro-fluoro-carbons and other Transitional Substances......Page 194
C. Exceptions for Essential Uses of ODS......Page 195
(i) Exceptions for CFCs......Page 197
(ii) Exceptions for Halons......Page 199
(iii) Exceptions for Methyl Bromide......Page 201
E. Promoting Technological Change within the Ozone Regime......Page 203
A. The International Response to Climate Change......Page 204
B. The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change......Page 206
C. The 1997 Kyoto Protocol to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change......Page 209
D. Commitments for Developing Countries under the Kyoto Protocol......Page 211
E. Targets for Substances with Ozone Depleting and Global Warming Potential......Page 214
F. Overlapping International Organizations......Page 215
A. Controlling Air Pollution......Page 216
B. The LRTAP Regime......Page 218
C. Outside of the LRTAP Regime......Page 221
D. Air Quality Standards......Page 223
E. Overlapping International Organizations......Page 224
F. Domestically Mobile Sources of Air Pollution......Page 225
A. Technological Choice......Page 229
B. Renewable Energy......Page 230
C. Energy Efficiency......Page 232
D. Fuel Switching......Page 234
5. Base Years......Page 235
6. Banking......Page 237
1. The Ozone Regime......Page 240
B. The Process of Investigation......Page 242
C. Penalties......Page 243
D. Minor Difficulties......Page 244
E. Substantial Difficulties......Page 246
2. The Air Pollution Regime......Page 251
A. The Implementation Committee of the LRTAP Regime......Page 252
B. Non-Compliance Within the LRTAP Regime......Page 254
A. Reporting Commitments......Page 256
B. Review......Page 258
C. Implementation......Page 261
D. Substantive Non-compliance......Page 262
1. The LRTAP and its Protocols......Page 266
2. The Ozone Instruments......Page 267
3. The Climate Change Regime......Page 269
1. Core Costs......Page 274
2. Scientific Costs......Page 276
A. Developing Countries......Page 278
C. Developing Countries within the Vienna Convention and the Montreal Protocol......Page 279
2. The Air Pollution Regime......Page 281
A. Countries with Obligations to Control their Greenhouse Gas Emissions......Page 283
C. Developing Countries......Page 284
D. The Least Developed Countries......Page 285
F. Countries with a Dependence on the Sale of Fossil Fuels......Page 286
1. NGOs in the Ozone Regime......Page 288
2. NGOs in the Climate Regime......Page 290
3. NGOs in the Air Pollution Regime......Page 293
A. Financial Assistance under the Auspice of the Montreal Protocol......Page 294
B. The Size of the Fund......Page 295
D. Incremental Costs and the Choice of Projects for Funding......Page 297
E. Composition of the Executive and the Role of Other International Organizations......Page 298
A. Precedents and Evolution......Page 301
B. Size of the Various Funds and Generating Mechanisms......Page 302
C. Management of the Funds......Page 303
D. Funding Objectives......Page 305
(i) Article 4(1) and Capacity Building......Page 306
(iii) Adaptation to Climate Change......Page 309
(iv) Vulnerable Countries: The Least Developed Countries and Small Island States......Page 311
1. The LRTAP Regime......Page 315
2. The Ozone Regime......Page 316
3. Climate Change......Page 317
B. The Ozone Regime......Page 322
C. The Climate Regime......Page 324
2. Bubbling......Page 329
3. The Clean Development Mechanism......Page 331
A. The Precedents of Domestic Air Pollution......Page 336
B. Emissions Trading in Climate Change......Page 337
1. Air Pollution and Climate Concerns......Page 342
2. The Ozone Experience......Page 343
A. Products Containing ODS......Page 344
C. Non-Parties......Page 345
D. The Trade In Recycled ODS......Page 346
E. Illegally Traded ODS & The Licensing Solution......Page 347
Part III: Options......Page 350
2. Efficiency......Page 352
3. Alternatives to Ozone Depleting Substances......Page 354
4. Efficiency, Recycling and Destruction of Ozone Depleting Substances......Page 359
5. New Energy Sources: Wind, Oceans, Solar and Nuclear......Page 362
6. Substitution of Fuel Within Existing Energy Sources......Page 369
7. Modification of Technology for Stationary Sources......Page 371
8. Modification or Change of Technology for Mobile Sources......Page 373
9. Efficiencies that Reduce Air and Climate Pollutants......Page 375
A. Nuclear......Page 380
B. Non-Nuclear New Energy Sources......Page 388
A. Stationary Sources......Page 390
B. Mobile Sources......Page 391
3. Alternatives in the Ozone Regime......Page 396
A. Sequestration in the Ocean......Page 398
B. Sequestration On Land......Page 399
2. Sinks Within the FCCC and Kyoto Protocol......Page 401
B. Overall Claim Potential......Page 403
D. Scientific Uncertainty......Page 405
E. Forestation & Deforestation......Page 408
F. Additional Activities......Page 411
G. LULUCF and the Flexibility Mechanisms......Page 413
Index......Page 414