دانلود کتاب Contamination and ESD control in high-technology manufacturing

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CONTAMINATION AND ESD CONTROL IN HIGH-TECHNOLOGY MANUFACTURING......Page 3
CONTENTS......Page 7
PREFACE......Page 17
1.1.1 Contamination Sources......Page 19
1.1.2 Contamination Adhesion Forces......Page 21
1.1.3 Contamination Control Methods......Page 27
1.2 Glossary of Contamination Control Terms......Page 28
1.3 Specifying Contamination in Air and on Surfaces......Page 31
1.4 Sources of Contamination......Page 34
1.5.1 Airborne Particle Requirements......Page 36
1.5.2 Chemical Vapor Contamination Control Limits......Page 51
1.5.3 Ionic Contamination Control Limits......Page 53
1.5.5 Surface Contamination Rates and Air Ionization......Page 55
1.5.6 Contact Transfer and In Situ Contamination......Page 56
1.5.8 Pressure Requirements and Enclosure Exhausts......Page 57
1.5.9 Maintenance Requirements......Page 58
1.6 Pertinent Standards......Page 61
Additional Reading......Page 64
2.1 Introduction and Historical Perspective......Page 66
2.2 Glossary of Electrostatic Charge Control Terms......Page 70
2.3 Sources of Electrostatic Charge......Page 74
2.3.1 Static Electricity......Page 75
2.3.2 Effects of Electrostatic Charge and Discharge......Page 83
2.3.3 Failure Modes in High-Technology ESD-Sensitivity Devices......Page 85
2.4 Requirements of ESD Control......Page 86
2.4.1 Determining ESD Damage Sensitivity......Page 87
2.4.2 Electrically Explosive Device ESD Modeling......Page 92
2.5.1 Surface Resistivity of Materials......Page 93
2.5.2 Grounding......Page 95
2.5.4 ESD-Protective Floor Coverings......Page 96
2.5.5 Work Surfaces and Table Mats......Page 99
2.5.7 Air Ionization Systems......Page 101
2.5.8 Relative Humidity......Page 106
2.5.10 Trash Cans......Page 108
2.5.11 Cathode-Ray Tube Displays......Page 109
2.5.12 Field Potential Limits......Page 111
2.5.14 Conveyors......Page 112
2.6.2 Training and Certification Program......Page 113
2.6.3 Cleanroom Gowns and ESD Lab Coats......Page 115
2.6.4 Footwear......Page 116
2.7.1 Packaging......Page 118
2.7.3 Tote Boxes, Bins, and Other Shipping Containers......Page 120
2.7.7 Tape......Page 122
2.8.1 Wrist Straps and Wrist Strap Monitors......Page 123
2.10.1 Daily Visual Inspection......Page 124
2.10.2 Periodic Instrumental Inspection......Page 125
2.10.3 Testing Protocols......Page 127
2.11 ESD Control Program......Page 130
2.12 ESD and Contamination Control......Page 133
2.13 Useful Reference Standards......Page 134
References and Notes......Page 135
3.2 Classification of Analysis Methods......Page 137
3.2.1 Functional Laboratory Tests......Page 139
3.2.2 Nonfunctional Tests: Objective Laboratory Tests......Page 142
3.3.1 Contaminants in Air......Page 151
3.3.2 Contaminants in Liquids......Page 152
3.3.3 Surface-Borne Contaminants......Page 153
3.4.2 Contact Angle Measurement......Page 154
3.4.5 Organic Sampling Techniques......Page 155
3.4.6 Central Atmospheric Monitoring System......Page 156
3.5 Ionic and Inorganic Contamination Analysis Methods......Page 157
3.6.1 Tribocharge Testing......Page 159
3.6.2 Bulk and Surface Resistance Measurements......Page 160
3.6.3 Air Ionizer Testing......Page 162
3.6.4 Typical ESD Field Instruments......Page 163
3.7 Numerical Simulation......Page 164
3.8 Algebraic Predictive Modeling......Page 165
3.9.1 Basic Statistical Analysis Tools......Page 168
3.9.2 Gage Capability Analysis of Cleanliness Measurement Methods......Page 169
References and Notes......Page 174
4.1 Introduction......Page 176
4.2.1 What Can Be Called a Cleanroom......Page 177
4.2.2 What It Takes to Make a Cleanroom Work......Page 179
4.2.3 How Filters Work......Page 180
4.3 Cleanrooms......Page 183
4.3.1 Non-Unidirectional-Flow (Conventional or Mixed-Flow) Cleanrooms......Page 184
4.3.2 Air Ionization for Non-Unidirectional-Flow Cleanrooms......Page 186
4.3.3 Unidirectional Flow: 100% Filter Coverage......Page 187
4.3.5 Adding a Perforated Raised Floor......Page 192
4.3.6 Balancing a Room Using a Perforated Raised Floor......Page 193
4.3.7 Airflow Balancing After Tool Installation......Page 194
4.3.9 Parts Storage Locations......Page 199
4.3.10 Horizontal Unidirectional-Airflow Cleanrooms......Page 200
4.4 Cleanroom Construction and Operating Costs......Page 201
4.5.1 Unidirectional-Flow Clean Benches......Page 202
4.5.2 Isolators and Minienvironments......Page 204
4.5.3 Point-of-Use Clean Air Cleanrooms......Page 205
4.5.4 Tunnelizing an Existing Ballroom Cleanroom......Page 206
4.5.5 Minienvironments......Page 208
4.6.1 Doors and Air Showers......Page 209
4.6.2 Pass-Throughs......Page 210
References and Notes......Page 211
5.1 Introduction......Page 213
5.2 Historical Perspective......Page 214
5.3 Gross and Precision Cleanliness Protocols......Page 215
5.3.1 Approaches to Specifying Cleanliness Levels......Page 217
5.4.1 Design-for-Manufacturability Guidelines......Page 220
5.4.3 Cleanability Indexes for Indirect Cleanliness Measurements......Page 221
5.4.4 Design-for-Cleanability Planning Considerations......Page 224
5.5 Process Design Guidelines......Page 234
5.5.1 Use of Water-Soluble Cutting Fluids......Page 235
5.5.4 Parts Handling After Final Cleaning......Page 236
5.5.6 Clean–Then Assemble vs. Assemble–Then Clean......Page 237
5.6 Cleaning Processes......Page 238
5.6.3 Ultrasonic Cleaning......Page 239
5.6.4 Spray Cleaning......Page 243
5.6.5 Spin-Rinse Dryer Cleaning......Page 246
5.6.8 Solvent Cleaning......Page 248
5.6.10 Manual Cleaning......Page 249
5.6.11 Specialty Cleaning......Page 250
5.7.2 Forced-Air Drying......Page 252
5.7.5 Chemical Drying......Page 253
5.9 Vendor Process Contamination Checklist......Page 254
5.10 Case Studies: Cleaning Equipment and Cleaning Process Design......Page 264
5.11 Details on the Clean–Then Assemble and Assemble–Then Clean Procedures......Page 270
5.11.1 Cleaning Strategies......Page 271
5.11.2 Case Studies: CTA and ATC......Page 273
5.11.3 Case Study Results and Discussion......Page 280
5.12.1 MIL-STD-1246......Page 282
5.12.2 Analytical Methods......Page 283
5.12.4 Results......Page 284
5.13 Tool Part Cleanliness......Page 290
References and Notes......Page 291
6.1 Introduction......Page 294
6.1.1 Tooling Design Process......Page 295
6.1.2 Applications and Limitations of Tooling Design......Page 296
6.2 Contamination and ESD Control Requirements......Page 297
6.3.1 (Basics of a) Wipe-Down Procedure......Page 298
6.3.2 Maintenance Wipe-Down......Page 299
6.3.4 Summary of Requirements......Page 300
6.4.1 Eliminating Contamination Generators......Page 301
6.4.2 Relocating Contamination Generators......Page 302
6.4.3 Enclosing and Evacuating Contamination Generators......Page 303
6.5.1 Guidelines for Materials......Page 311
6.5.2 Guidelines for Wear......Page 315
6.5.3 Guidelines for Plastics......Page 319
6.6 Surface Treatments......Page 326
6.6.1 Paints......Page 327
6.6.2 Anodizing and Related Treatments......Page 328
6.6.5 Synergistic Coatings......Page 329
6.6.7 Surface Texture and Porosity......Page 330
6.7 Selection and Evaluation of Components......Page 331
6.7.3 Electric Motors......Page 332
6.7.4 Process Piping and Point-of-Use Filtration......Page 333
6.7.5 In Situ Monitoring Equipment......Page 334
6.7.6 Hand Tools......Page 335
6.8.1 Flow Control Enclosures, Minienvironments, and the Standard Machine Interface......Page 336
6.8.2 Putting the Cleanroom Tool Together......Page 340
6.9 Cleanroom Certification of Automated Tooling......Page 343
6.9.1 Statistical Requirements for Sampling......Page 345
6.9.2 Analytical Equipment and Methods......Page 349
Additional Reading......Page 352
7.1 Introduction......Page 354
7.1.1 Approaches to Monitoring......Page 355
7.1.2 Traditional Airborne Particle Measurements......Page 356
7.1.4 Modified Data Collection Protocol......Page 357
7.1.5 Ongoing Use of Critical and Busy Sampling......Page 358
7.1.6 Case Studies: Traditional vs. Critical and Busy Sampling......Page 359
7.1.7 Trend, Cyclic, and Burst Patterns of Particle Generation......Page 364
7.1.8 Case Studies: Other Applications of Continuous Monitoring......Page 366
7.2.1 Electronically Multiplexed Monitoring......Page 368
7.2.2 Pneumatically Multiplexed Particle Monitoring......Page 369
7.3.1 Air Quality......Page 370
7.3.2 Process Fluid Purity......Page 373
7.3.3 The Value of 100% Sampling......Page 374
7.3.4 Cleanliness of Surfaces and Electrostatic Charge......Page 376
7.4 Evaluation of In Situ Monitoring in an Aqueous Cleaning Application......Page 377
7.4.1 Description of Experiment......Page 378
7.4.2 Experimental Results......Page 380
7.4.3 Management Using ISPM......Page 388
7.4.4 Conclusions......Page 389
References and Notes......Page 390
8.1 Introduction......Page 392
8.2 Cleanroom and ESD Gloves......Page 393
8.3.1 Functional Materials Qualification Tests......Page 394
8.3.2 Nonfunctional Testing: Objective Laboratory Measurements......Page 395
8.3.3 ESD Considerations in Glove Selection......Page 397
8.5 Initial Qualification vs. the Need for Ongoing Lot Certification......Page 399
8.6.1 Early Observations with Natural Rubber Latex Gloves......Page 401
8.6.2 Gloves Washability......Page 402
8.6.3 Nitrile Glove Performance......Page 405
8.7 ESD Performance of Gloves......Page 406
8.7.2 Specifying the ESD Performance of Cleanroom Gloves and Glove Liners......Page 407
8.7.3 Testing Considerations......Page 409
8.7.4 Factors That Affect the ESD Performance of Gloves......Page 410
8.8 Glove Laundering......Page 414
8.8.2 Polyurethane Glove Laboratory Properties......Page 415
8.8.3 ESD Performance......Page 416
8.8.5 Wear Characteristics......Page 417
8.8.7 Impact of Laundering and Reuse on Glove Cost......Page 419
8.9 Wipers and Swabs......Page 420
8.9.1 Selecting the Correct Wiper or Swab......Page 421
8.10.2 Carbon-Filled Polymers......Page 423
8.10.4 Topical and Incorporated Organic Agents......Page 424
8.11 Facial Coverings......Page 425
References and Notes......Page 426
9.2 People as a Source of Contamination......Page 428
9.2.1 Skin and Hair......Page 429
9.2.2 Fingerprints......Page 431
9.2.4 Spittle Droplets......Page 432
9.2.5 Street Clothing......Page 433
9.2.6 Other Forms of Contamination......Page 434
9.3 Typical Gowning Protocols......Page 435
9.3.1 Inner Suit......Page 436
9.3.3 Woven Gloves......Page 437
9.3.5 Facial Cover......Page 438
9.3.6 Hood and Powered Headgear......Page 439
9.3.7 Frock, Coverall, and Two-Piece Suit......Page 440
9.3.8 Shoe Covers, Booties, and Special Shoes......Page 442
9.4 Procedures for Entering a Cleanroom......Page 444
9.4.2 Wipe-Down......Page 445
9.4.3 Hairnet and Face Mask......Page 446
9.4.4 Shoe Cleaners......Page 447
9.4.5 Handwashing......Page 448
9.4.6 Changing into Cleanroom Garments......Page 449
9.4.8 Footwear......Page 451
9.4.9 Shoe Cleaners and Tacky Mats......Page 454
9.5 Behavior in a Cleanroom......Page 455
9.5.1 Working in a Cleanroom......Page 456
9.6 Procedures for Exiting a Cleanroom......Page 457
9.6.3 Head Covering......Page 458
9.7 Relationship between Attire and Class Achieved......Page 459
9.8 Procedures for Entering an ESD-Safe Work Area......Page 461
9.8.1 Behavior in an ESD-Safe Work Area......Page 462
9.8.2 ESD-Safe Work Area in a Cleanroom......Page 463
9.9.2 Measurements of Garment Cleanliness......Page 464
9.9.4 Design and Construction of Garments......Page 466
References and Notes......Page 467
10.1 Principles of Efficient Change Room Design......Page 469
10.2 Case Studies: Change Rooms......Page 472
10.3 Entering the Cleanroom......Page 485
10.3.1 Planning a Trip into the Cleanroom......Page 486
10.3.4 Finishing Dressing......Page 487
10.4 Exiting the Cleanroom......Page 488
10.5 Other Considerations......Page 490
References and Notes......Page 492
11.1 Hierarchy of Documents and Audits......Page 493
11.2 Operator Self-Check......Page 494
11.3 Noninstrument Audits......Page 496
11.4 Instrument Audits......Page 497
11.5 Independent Audits......Page 498
11.6 Managing Use of the Audit Scorecard......Page 499
11.7 Typical Survey......Page 501
11.8 Case Study: Broken Magnet Procedure......Page 506
11.8.2 Recommendations for the Broken Magnet Procedure......Page 507
Reference......Page 509
INDEX......Page 511