دانلود کتاب Descriptive Grammar of Pashto and its Dialects

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Foreword\nSeries Editors’ Preface\nPreface\nAbout this Grammar\n Scope of this book\n Orthography\n Tables and examples\n Abbreviations and symbols\nThe Pashto Language\n Background\n Population of speakers\n History and classification\n Dialectal variation\nPhonology and Orthography\n Phonetics and phonology\n Consonants\n Inventory\n “Elegant” consonants\n Vowels\n Inventory\n Vowel transcription\n “Elegant” vowels\n Middle dialect vowels\n Stress\n Orthography\n The script\n Letters unique to Pashto\n Tables of letters and numerals\n Representation of vowels\n Word-initial vowels\n Word-internal vowels\n Word-final vowels\n Rationale for transcription system\n Orthographic variation\nPashto Dialects\n Introduction\n Characterizing Pashto dialects\n Dialect marking in this work\n Dialect marking in tables\n Dialect marking in interlinear examples\n The four dialects of General Pashto\n International differences\n The Middle dialects\n Middle dialect vowels\n Middle dialect consonants\n Other approaches\n Two dialects\n Three dialects\nNouns\n Inflection\n Gender\n Number\n Case\n Direct case\n Oblique case\n Ablative case\n Vocative case\n Split ergativity\n Animacy\n Inflectional affixation\n Introduction\n Stem allomorphy and other morphophonemic alternations\n Class I\n Overview\n Class I masculine nouns\n Masculine animate nouns in General Pashto\n Masculine animate nouns in Waziri\n Masculine inanimate nouns in General Pashto and Waziri\n Class I feminine nouns in General Pashto and Waziri\n General Pashto Class I feminine animate nouns\n General Pashto Class I feminine inanimate nouns\n Waziri Class I feminine nouns\n Class II\n Overview\n General Pashto Class IIa\n General Pashto Class IIb\n Class III\n Overview\n Subclassification of Class III in General Pashto\n Class IIIa\n Masculine Class IIIa nouns\n Feminine Class IIIa nouns\n Class IIIb\n Masculine Class IIIb nouns\n Feminine Class IIIb nouns\n Class III in Waziri\n Irregular nouns and irregular patterns in General Pashto\n Kinship terms\n Arabic borrowings\n Inflection and agreement of conjoined nouns\n Derivational morphology and loanwords\n Derivational morphology of nouns\n Nouns derived with suffixes\n Compounds\n Reduplication of nouns\n Loanwords\nAdjectives and Other Noun Modifiers\n Introduction\n Inflectional classes in General Pashto and Waziri\n Inflectional classes of General Pashto adjectives\n General Pashto Class I\n Case-marking suffixes\n Stem allomorphy\n Class I forms with stem allomorphy\n Class I forms without stem allomorphy\n Animacy in Class I adjectives\n General Pashto Class II\n Case-marking suffixes\n Stem allomorphy\n Class II forms with stem allomorphy\n Class II forms without stem allomorphy\n General Pashto Class III\n Class IIIa\n Class IIIb\n General Pashto Class IV (non-declining adjectives)\n Inflectional classes of Waziri adjectives\n Waziri Class I\n Waziri Class II\n Waziri Class III\n Determiners and definiteness\n Demonstrative determiners\n The indefinite determiner ‌یو ‌ /yaw/ ‘one’\n Non-numerical noun quantifiers\n The quantifier ‌ټولـ ‌ /ṭol-/ ‘all’\n The quantifier ‌هر ‌ /har/, ‌ /ar/ ‘every’\n The quantifier ‌هیڅ ‌ /heʦ/ ‘none’\n Number names\n Cardinal numbers in Pashto\n Morphology\n Inventory\n Ordinal numbers in General Pashto and Waziri\n Reduplication of number names\n Interrogative adjectives\n Inflection of conjoined adjectives\n Derivation of adjectives\n Derivational suffixes\n Some Class I derivational suffixes\n Some Class IIIa derivational suffixes\n Some Class IV (non-declining) derivational suffixes\n Negators\n Compound adjectives\n Reduplication of adjectives\n Usage\n Attributive and predicative adjectives\n Zero-derivation of nouns from adjectives\n Comparatives and superlatives\n Adjectives as adverbs\nPronouns\n Overview\n Strong personal pronouns\n Forms in General Pashto and Middle dialects\n Usage\n Strong possessive pronouns\n Weak personal pronouns\n Forms\n Usage\n Occurrence restrictions\n Possessive constructions\n Deictoids: ‌را ‌ /rā/, ‌در ‌ /dər/, and ‌ور ‌ /wər/\n Oblique pronominal clitics\n Directional verbal clitics\n Deictic prefixes\n Demonstratives\n Interrogative pronouns\n Indefinite pronouns\n Relative pronouns\n Expressions of coreference\n Reciprocal pronouns\n Other pro-forms\nVerbs\n Overview\n Properties of verbs\n Classifying verbs\n Verb components\n Structure of the verb\n Personal suffixes\n The infinitive\n Simplex and complex verbs\n Overview\n a-initial verbs\n Prefixed verbs\n Denominal verb constructions\n Conjugation classes\n Overview of conjugation classes\n First conjugation class in General Pashto\n First conjugation class in Middle dialects\n Second conjugation\n Third conjugation\n Forming the aorist in third conjugation verbs\n A special case of third conjugation verbs: infinitive/past participle + ‌کېدل ‌ /kedə́l/\n Stem classes and the four bases\n The four verb bases\n Weak verbs (one stem)\n Strong verbs (more than one stem)\n Strong verbs with two stems\n Strong verbs with three or four stems\n List of strong verbs\n The causative morpheme\n The auxiliary to be and the verbalizers ‌کېدل ‌ /kedə́l/ and ‌کول ‌ /kawə́l/\n Forms of to be\n Forms of ‌کېدل ‌ /kedə́l/ ‘to become’\n Forms of ‌کول ‌ /kawə́l/ ‘to make; to do‍’\n Participles\n Present participle\n Past participle\n Irregularities among past participles\n Simple verb constructions\n Present continuous\n Present aorist\n Past continuous\n Past aorist\n Continuous imperative\n Aorist imperative\n Continuous optative\n Aorist optative\n Compound verb constructions\n Perfect constructions\n Present perfect\n Past perfect\n Potential constructions\n Present potential\n Past potential\n Verb usage\n Uses of the verb to be\n to be as a copula\n to be as an auxiliary verb\n Simple verb constructions\n Present continuous\n Negation of present tense verbs\n Present continuous for expressing future events\n Present aorist\n Expressing the future with present aorist plus ‌به ‌ /bə/\n Other uses of the present aorist\n Past continuous\n Past aorist\n Imperative\n Compound constructions: perfect\n Present perfect\n Past perfect\n Negation of perfect tenses\n Compound constructions: potential\n Expressing potential present events\n Expressing potential past events\n Expressing potential future events\n Negative\n Infinitives\n Infinitives as nouns\n The periphrastic passive\n Present participles\nAdpositions\n Overview\n Adpositions and case assignment\n Assignment of oblique case\n Assignment of ablative case\n Assignment of direct case\n Mixed case-marking inside objects of adpositions\n Prepositions\n The prepositions ‌ /də/, /de/, /ye/, /e/ ‘of’\n The General Pashto preposition ‌د ‌ /də/\n Complex adpositions using ‌د ‌ /də/\n The Middle dialect prepositions ‌ /de/, ‌ /ye/, ‌ /e/\n Middle dialect complex adpositions using ‌ /ye/\n The General Pashto preposition ‌له ‌ /lə/ ‘from’\n The preposition ‌بې ‌ /be/ ‘without’\n The prepositions ‌په ‌ /pə/, ‌پر ‌ /pər/\n The locational ‌په ‌ /pə/, ‌پر ‌ /pər/ ‘on’\n The instrumental ‌په ‌ /pə/ ‘with, by means of’\n The temporal ‌په ‌ /pə/, ‌پر ‌ /pər/ ‘at, on’\n With aspectual verbs\n The preposition ‌تر ‌ /tər/ ‘\'up to\'’\n The preposition ‌لکه ‌ /leka/ ‘like’\n Postpositions\n Overview\n The postposition ‌ته ‌ /ta/ ‘to, for’\n The postposition ‌سره ‌ /səra/ ‘with’\n The postposition ‌ضدی ‌ /zidi/ ‘against’\n The postposition ‌و ړاندې ‌ /wṛānde/ ‘before’\n The postposition ‌غوندې ‌ /ɣunde/ ‘like’\n The postposition ‌باتدې ‌ /bānde/\n Some additional postpositions in Middle dialects\n Circumpositions\n Circumpositions with ‌د ‌ /də/\n General Pashto simple circumpositions with ‌د ‌ /də/\n Middle dialect simple circumpositions with ‌ /ye/, ‌ /e/\n Complex circumpositions with ‌د ‌ /də/\n General Pashto circumpositions with ‌له ‌ /lə/\n GP simple circumpositions with ‌له ‌ /lə/\n GP complex circumpositions with ‌له...نه ‌ /lə...na/\n Circumpositions with ‌په ‌ /pə/\n Circumpositions with ‌تر ‌ /tər/\n A Middle dialect circumposition with ‌و ‌ /wə/\n Coalesced adpositional phrases\n Pro-adpositional phrases\n The adpositional phrase ‌کره ‌ /kara/ ‘at the home of’\n Adposition usage\n ‌نه ‌ /na/ vs. ablative case-marking on object\n ‌د ‌ /də/ and strong pronoun objects\n ‌په ‌ /pə/ and ‌په...باندې ‌ /(pə...) bānde/ used in a causative construction\n Omission of pronoun objects of adpositions\n Postpositions with oblique pronominal clitics\nOther Lexical Elements\n Particles\n The existential particle ‌شته ‌ /šta/\n Modal particles\n The modal clitic ‌به ‌ /bə/\n The modal particles ‌دې ‌ /de/ and ‌باید ‌ /bāyad/\n The modal particle ‌ښایي ‌ /ṣāyi/ ‘may; must’\n The optative particle ‌کاشکې ‌ /kāške/\n Affirmation particles\n The emphatic clitic ‌خو ‌ /xo/\n Vocative particles\n Interjections\n Adverbs\n Adverbs of time\n Adverbs of place\n Adverbs of manner\n The adverb ‌سره ‌ /səra/\n Adverbs of degree\n Adverbs borrowed from Arabic\n Adverbial interrogatives\n Adjectives as adverbs\n Reduplication of adverbs\n Reduplication\n Full (morphological) reduplication\n Partial reduplication: echo words\nSyntax\n Overview\n Phrasal syntax\n Noun phrases\n Adpositional phrases\n Verb phrases\n Light verb constructions\n Elements in the verbal group\n The verbal group in General Pashto\n The verbal group in Middle dialects\n Negative placement in the aorist verb phrase\n Main clause sentence types\n Declaratives\n Order of elements in declaratives\n Order of elements in ditransitive main clauses\n Locative alternation\n Adpositional phrases with oblique pronominal clitics\n Passive clauses\n Interrogatives\n Yes-or-no questions with the particle ‌آیا ‌ /āyā/\n Information questions with interrogative pronouns\n Affirmation questions with the particle ‌که نه ‌ /kə na/\n Imperatives\n The imperative verb form\n The negative imperative particle ‌مه ‌ /má/\n Generic and existential sentences with ‌شته ‌ /šta/\n Other principles of word order in main clauses\n Weak pronouns\n Particles\n Adpositional phrases in main clauses\n Interpretation of adpositional phrases headed by ‌د ‌ /də/\n Some subordinate clause types\n Relative clauses\n Noun complement clauses\n Verb complement clauses\n Reported speech\n Subordinate clauses as modifiers\n Subordinate clauses with time reference\n Conditional and counterfactual clauses with ‌که ‌ /kə/ ‘if’\n Subordinate clauses with ‌ځکه ‌ /ʣəka/ ‘because’\n Subordinate clauses expressing result\n Subordinate clauses expressing reason\n Subordinate clauses expressing purpose\n Subordinate clauses of concession\n Periphrastic causatives\n Conjunction\n Coordinating conjunctions\n ‌او ‌ /aw/ ‘and’\n ‌یا ‌ /yā/ ‘or’\n ‌خو ‌ /xo/ ‘but’\n ‌(او) بیا ‌ /(aw) byā/ ‘then’\n Correlative conjunctions\n Principles of case-marking and agreement\n Tense-based case-marking and split ergativity\n Agreement of conjoined items\n Concordant adverbs\n Case-marking patterns of verbs of sensation or preference\n Four denominal verbs of sensation\n Denominal ‌خوښېږ- ‌ /xwaxeg‑/ ‘like, enjoy’\n Three more expressions of preference\n An unergative or middle voice construction\nStructure of this Grammar\n Overview\n Audience\n More on uses of this grammar\n The grammar as a basis for computational tools\n Building a parser and generator\n The grammar as a description\n Spell correction\n Grammar adaptation\n Manual grammar building\n Automated grammar adaptation\n Formatting the grammar for viewing\nSources of Pashto Data\n Sources of interlinear examples taken from the web\n List of web pages mined for language data\nBibliography\nIndex