دانلود کتاب Elements of ecology

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Cover
Title Page
Copyright
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 The Nature of Ecology
1.1 Ecology Is the Study of the Relationship between Organisms and Their Environment
1.2 Organisms Interact with the Environment in the Context of the Ecosystem
1.3 Ecological Systems Form a Hierarchy
1.4 Ecologists Study Pattern and Process at Many Levels
1.5 Ecologists Investigate Nature Using the Scientific Method
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 1.1: Classifying Ecological Data
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 1.2: Displaying Ecological Data: Histograms and Scatter Plots
1.6 Models Provide a Basis for Predictions
1.7 Uncertainty Is an Inherent Feature of Science
1.8 Ecology Has Strong Ties to Other Disciplines
1.9 The Individual Is the Basic Unit of Ecology
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Ecology Has a Rich History
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Part 1 The Physical Environment
Chapter 2 Climate
2.1 Surface Temperatures Reflect the Difference between Incoming and Outgoing Radiation
2.2 Intercepted Solar Radiation and Surface Temperatures Vary Seasonally
2.3 Geographic Difference in Surface Net Radiation Result in Global Patterns of Atmospheric Circulation
2.4 Surface Winds and Earth’s Rotation Create Ocean Currents
2.5 Temperature Influences the Moisture Content of Air
2.6 Precipitation Has a Distinctive Global Pattern
2.7 Proximity to the Coastline Influences Climate
2.8 Topography Influences Regional and Local Patterns of Climate
2.9 Irregular Variations in Climate Occur at the Regional Scale
2.10 Most Organisms Live in Microclimates
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Rising Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases Are Altering Earth’s Climate
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 3 The Aquatic Environment
3.1 Water Cycles between Earth and the Atmosphere
3.2 Water Has Important Physical Properties
3.3 Light Varies with Depth in Aquatic Environments
3.4 Temperature Varies with Water Depth
3.5 Water Functions as a Solvent
3.6 Oxygen Diffuses from the Atmosphere to the Surface Waters
3.7 Acidity Has a Widespread Influence on Aquatic Environments
3.8 Water Movements Shape Freshwater and Marine Environments
3.9 Tides Dominate the Marine Coastal Environment
3.10 The Transition Zone between Freshwater and Saltwater Environments Presents Unique Constraints
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Rising Atmospheric Concentrations of CO2 Are Impacting Ocean Acidity
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 4 The Terrestrial Environment
4.1 Life on Land Imposes Unique Constraints
4.2 Plant Cover Influences the Vertical Distribution of Light
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 4.1: Beer’s Law and the Attenuation of Light
4.3 Soil Is the Foundation upon which All Terrestrial Life Depends
4.4 The Formation of Soil Begins with Weathering
4.5 Soil Formation Involves Five Interrelated Factors
4.6 Soils Have Certain Distinguishing Physical Characteristics
4.7 The Soil Body Has Horizontal Layers or Horizons
4.8 Moisture-Holding Capacity Is an Essential Feature of Soils
4.9 Ion Exchange Capacity Is Important to Soil Fertility
4.10 Basic Soil Formation Processes Produce Different Soils
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Soil Erosion Is a Threat to Agricultural Sustainability
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Part 2 The Organism and Its Environment
Chapter 5 Adaptation and Natural Selection
5.1 Adaptations Are a Product of Natural Selection
5.2 Genes Are the Units of Inheritance
5.3 The Phenotype Is the Physical Expression of the Genotype
5.4 The Expression of Most Phenotypic Traits Is Affected by the Environment
5.5 Genetic Variation Occurs at the Level of the Population
5.6 Adaptation Is a Product of Evolution by Natural Selection
5.7 Several Processes Other than Natural Selection Can Function to Alter Patterns of Genetic Variation within Populations
5.8 Natural Selection Can Result in Genetic Differentiation
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 5.1: Hardy–Weinberg Principle
FIELD STUDIES: Hopi Hoekstra
5.9 Adaptations Reflect Trade-offs and Constraints
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Genetic Engineering Allows Humans to Manipulate a Species’ DNA
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 6 Plant Adaptations to the Environment
6.1 Photosynthesis Is the Conversion of Carbon Dioxide into Simple Sugars
6.2 The Light a Plant Receives Affects Its Photosynthetic Activity
6.3 Photosynthesis Involves Exchanges between the Plant and Atmosphere
6.4 Water Moves from the Soil, through the Plant, to the Atmosphere
6.5 The Process of Carbon Uptake Differs for Aquatic and Terrestrial Autotrophs
6.6 Plant Temperatures Reflect Their Energy Balance with the Surrounding Environment
6.7 Constraints Imposed by the Physical Environment Have Resulted in a Wide Array of Plant Adaptations
6.8 Species of Plants Are Adapted to Different Light Environments
FIELD STUDIES: Kaoru Kitajima
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 6.1: Relative Growth Rate
6.9 The Link between Water Demand and Temperature Influences Plant Adaptations
6.10 Plants Exhibit Both Acclimation and Adaptation in Response to Variations in Environmental Temperatures
6.11 Plants Exhibit Adaptations to Variations in Nutrient Availability
6.12 Plant Adaptations to the Environment Reflect a Trade-off between Growth Rate and Tolerance
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Plants Respond to Increasing Atmospheric CO2
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 7 Animal Adaptations to the Environment
7.1 Size Imposes a Fundamental Constraint on the Evolution of Organisms
7.2 Animals Have Various Ways of Acquiring Energy and Nutrients
7.3 In Responding to Variations in the External Environment, Animals Can Be either Conformers or Regulators
7.4 Regulation of Internal Conditions Involves Homeostasis and Feedback
FIELD STUDIES: Martin Wikelski
7.5 Animals Require Oxygen to Release Energy Contained in Food
7.6 Animals Maintain a Balance between the Uptake and Loss of Water
7.7 Animals Exchange Energy with Their Surrounding Environment
7.8 Animal Body Temperature Reflects Different Modes of Thermoregulation
7.9 Poikilotherms Regulate Body Temperature Primarily through Behavioral Mechanisms
7.10 Homeotherms Regulate Body Temperature through Metabolic Processes
7.11 Endothermy and Ectothermy Involve Trade-offs
7.12 Heterotherms Take on Characteristics of Ectotherms and Endotherms
7.13 Some Animals Use Unique Physiological Means for Thermal Balance
7.14 An Animal’s Habitat Reflects a Wide Variety of Adaptations to the Environment
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Increasing Global Temperature Is Affecting the Body Size of Animals
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Part 3 Populations
Chapter 8 Properties of Populations
8.1 Organisms May Be Unitary or Modular
8.2 The Distribution of a Population Defines Its Spatial Location
FIELD STUDIES: Filipe Alberto
8.3 Abundance Reflects Population Density and Distribution
8.4 Determining Density Requires Sampling
8.5 Measures of Population Structure Include Age, Developmental Stage, and Size
8.6 Sex Ratios in Populations May Shift with Age
8.7 Individuals Move within the Population
8.8 Population Distribution and Density Change in Both Time and Space
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Humans Aid in the Dispersal of Many Species, Expanding Their Geographic Range
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 9 Population Growth
9.1 Population Growth Reflects the Difference between Rates of Birth and Death
9.2 Life Tables Provide a Schedule of Age-Specific Mortality and Survival
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 9.1: Life Expectancy
9.3 Different Types of Life Tables Reflect Different Approaches to Defining Cohorts and Age Structure
9.4 Life Tables Provide Data for Mortality and Survivorship Curves
9.5 Birthrate Is Age-Specific
9.6 Birthrate and Survivorship Determine Net Reproductive Rate
9.7 Age-Specific Mortality and Birthrates Can Be Used to Project Population Growth
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 9.2: Life History Diagrams and Population Projection Matrices
9.8 Stochastic Processes Can Influence Population Dynamics
9.9 A Variety of Factors Can Lead to Population Extinction
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: The Leading Cause of Current Population Declines and Extinctions Is Habitat Loss
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 10 Life History
10.1 The Evolution of Life Histories Involves Trade-offs
10.2 Reproduction May Be Sexual or Asexual
10.3 Sexual Reproduction Takes a Variety of Forms
10.4 Reproduction Involves Both Benefits and Costs to Individual Fitness
10.5 Age at Maturity Is Influenced by Patterns of Age-Specific Mortality
10.6 Reproductive Effort Is Governed by Trade-offs between Fecundity and Survival
10.7 There Is a Trade-off between the Number and Size of Offspring
10.8 Species Differ in the Timing of Reproduction
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 10.1: Interpreting Trade-offs
10.9 An Individual’s Life History Represents the Interaction between Genotype and the Environment
10.10 Mating Systems Describe the Pairing of Males and Females
10.11 Acquisition of a Mate Involves Sexual Selection
FIELD STUDIES: Alexandra L. Basolo
10.12 Females May Choose Mates Based on Resources
10.13 Patterns of Life History Characteristics Reflect External Selective Forces
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: The Life History of the Human Population Reflects Technological and Cultural Changes
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 11 Intraspecific Population Regulation
11.1 The Environment Functions to Limit Population Growth
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 11.1: Defining the Carrying Capacity (K)
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 11.2: The Logistic Model of Population Growth
11.2 Population Regulation Involves Density Dependence
11.3 Competition Results When Resources Are Limited
11.4 Intraspecific Competition Affects Growth and Development
11.5 Intraspecific Competition Can Influence Mortality Rates
11.6 Intraspecific Competition Can Reduce Reproduction
11.7 High Density Is Stressful to Individuals
FIELD STUDIES: T.Scott Sillett
11.8 Dispersal Can Be Density Dependent
11.9 Social Behavior May Function to Limit Populations
11.10 Territoriality Can Function to Regulate Population Growth
11.11 Plants Preempt Space and Resources
11.12 A Form of Inverse Density Dependence Can Occur in Small Populations
11.13 Density-Independent Factors Can Influence Population Growth
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: The Conservation of Populations Requires an Understanding of Minimum Viable Population Size and Carrying Capacity
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Part 4 Species Interactions
Chapter 12 Species Interactions, Population Dynamics, and Natural Selection
12.1 Species Interactions Can Be Classified Based on Their Reciprocal Effects
12.2 Species Interactions Influence Population Dynamics
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 12.1: Incorporating Competitive Interactions in Models of Population Growth
12.3 Species Interactions Can Function as Agents of Natural Selection
12.4 The Nature of Species Interactions Can Vary across Geographic Landscapes
12.5 Species Interactions Can Be Diffuse
12.6 Species Interactions Influence the Species’ Niche
12.7 Species Interactions Can Drive Adaptive Radiation
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Urbanization Has Negatively Impacted Most Species while Favoring a Few
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 13 Interspecific Competition
13.1 Interspecific Competition Involves Two or More Species
13.2 The Combined Dynamics of Two Competing Populations Can Be Examined Using the Lotka–Volterra Model
13.3 There Are Four Possible Outcomes of Interspecific Competition
13.4 Laboratory Experiments Support the Lotka.Volterra Model
13.5 Studies Support the Competitive Exclusion Principle
13.6 Competition Is Influenced by Nonresource Factors
13.7 Temporal Variation in the Environment Influences Competitive Interactions
13.8 Competition Occurs for Multiple Resources
13.9 Relative Competitive Abilities Change along Environmental Gradients
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 13.1: Competition under Changing Environmental Conditions: Application of the Lotka-Volterra Model
13.10 Interspecific Competition Influences the Niche of a Species
13.11 Coexistence of Species Often Involves Partitioning Available Resources
13.12 Competition Is a Complex Interaction Involving Biotic and Abiotic Factors
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Is Range Expansion of Coyote a Result of Competitive Release from Wolves?
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 14 Predation
14.1 Predation Takes a Variety of Forms
14.2 Mathematical Model Describes the Interaction of Predator and Prey Populations
14.3 Predator-Prey Interaction Results in Population Cycles
14.4 Model Suggests Mutual Population Regulation
14.5 Functional Responses Relate Prey Consumed to Prey Density
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 14.1: Type II Functional Response
14.6 Predators Respond Numerically to Changing Prey Density
14.7 Foraging Involves Decisions about the Allocation of Time and Energy
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 14.2: A Simple Model of Optimal Foraging
14.8 Risk of Predation Can Influence Foraging Behavior
14.9 Coevolution Can Occur between Predator and Prey
14.10 Animal Prey Have Evolved Defenses against Predators
14.11 Predators Have Evolved Efficient Hunting Tactics
14.12 Herbivores Prey on Autotrophs
FIELD STUDIES: Rick A. Relyea
14.13 Plants Have Evolved Characteristics that Deter Herbivores
14.14 Plants, Herbivores, and Carnivores Interact
14.15 Predators Influence Prey Dynamics through Lethal and Nonlethal Effects
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Sustainable Harvest of Natural Populations Requires Being a “Smart Predator”
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 15 Parasitism and Mutualism
15.1 Parasites Draw Resources from Host Organisms
15.2 Hosts Provide Diverse Habitats for Parasites
15.3 Direct Transmission Can Occur between Host Organisms
15.4 Transmission between Hosts Can Involve an Intermediate Vector
15.5 Transmission Can Involve Multiple Hosts and Stages
15.6 Hosts Respond to Parasitic Invasions
15.7 Parasites Can Affect Host Survival and Reproduction
15.8 Parasites May Regulate Host Populations
15.9 Parasitism Can Evolve into a Mutually Beneficial Relationship
15.10 Mutualisms Involve Diverse Species Interactions
15.11 Mutualisms Are Involved in the Transfer of Nutrients
FIELD STUDIES: John J.Stachowicz
15.12 Some Mutualisms Are Defensive
15.13 Mutualisms Are Often Necessary for Pollination
15.14 Mutualisms Are Involved in Seed Dispersal
15.15 Mutualism Can Influence Population Dynamics
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 15.1: A Model of Mutualistic Interactions
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & Applications: Land-use Changes Are Resulting in an Expansion of Infectious Diseases Impacting Human Health
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Part 5 Community Ecology
Chapter 16 Community Structure
16.1 Biological Structure of Community Defined by Species Composition
16.2 Species Diversity Is defined by Species Richness and Evenness
16.3 Dominance Can Be Defined by a Number of Criteria
16.4 Keystone Species Influence Community Structure Disproportionately to Their Numbers
16.5 Food Webs Describe Species Interactions
16.6 Species within a Community Can Be Classified into Functional Groups
16.7 Communities Have a Characteristic Physical Structure
16.8 Zonation Is Spatial Change in Community Structure
16.9 Defining Boundaries between Communities Is Often Difficult
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 16.1: Community Similarity
16.10 Two Contrasting Views of the Community
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Restoration Ecology Requires an Understanding of the Processes Influencing the Structure and Dynamics of Communities
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 17 Factors Influencing the Structure of Communities
17.1 Community Structure Is an Expression of the Species’ Ecological Niche
17.2 Zonation Is a Result of Differences in Species’ Tolerance and Interactions along Environmental Gradients
FIELD STUDIES: Sally D. Hacker
17.3 Species Interactions Are Often Diffuse
17.4 Food Webs Illustrate Indirect Interactions
17.5 Food Webs Suggest Controls of Community Structure
17.6 Environmental Heterogeneity Influences Community Diversity
17.7 Resource Availability Can Influence Plant Diversity within a Community
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: The Reintroduction of a Top Predator to Yellowstone National Park Led to a Complex Trophic Cascade
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 18 Community Dynamics
18.1 Community Structure Changes through Time
18.2 Primary Succession Occurs on Newly Exposed Substrates
18.3 Secondary Succession Occurs after Disturbances
18.4 The Study of Succession Has a Rich History
18.5 Succession Is Associated with Autogenic Changes in Environmental Conditions
18.6 Species Diversity Changes during Succession
18.7 Succession Involves Heterotrophic Species
18.8 Systematic Changes in Community Structure Are a Result of Allogenic Environmental Change at a Variety of Timescales
18.9 Community Structure Changes over Geologic Time
18.10 The Concept of Community Revisited
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Community Dynamics in Eastern North America over the Past Two Centuries Are a Result of Changing Patterns of Land Use
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 19 Landscape Dynamics
19.1 A Variety of Processes Gives Rise to Landscape Patterns
19.2 Landscape Pattern Is Defined by the Spatial Arrangement and Connectivity of Patches
19.3 Boundaries Are Transition Zones that Offer Diverse Conditions and Habitats
19.4 Patch Size and Shape Influence Community Structure
19.5 Landscape Connectivity Permits Movement between Patches
FIELD STUDIES: Nick A. Haddad
19.6 The Theory of Island Biogeography Applies to Landscape Patches
19.7 Metapopulation Theory Is a Central Concept in the Study of Landscape Dynamics
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 19.1: Model of Metapopulation Dynamics
19.8 Local Communities Occupying Patches on the Landscape Define the Metacommunity
19.9 The Landscape Represents a Shifting Mosaic of Changing Communities
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Corridors Are Playing a Growing Role in Conservation Efforts
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Part 6 Ecosystem Ecology
Chapter 20 Ecosystem Energetics
20.1 The Laws of Thermodynamics Govern Energy Flow
20.2 Energy Fixed in the Process of Photosynthesis Is Primary Production
20.3 Climate and Nutrient Availability Are the Primary Controls on Net Primary Productivity in Terrestrial Ecosystems
20.4 Light and Nutrient Availability Are the Primary Controls on Net Primary Productivity in Aquatic Ecosystems
20.5 External Inputs of Organic Carbon Can Be Important to Aquatic Ecosystems
20.6 Energy Allocation and Plant Life-Form Influence Primary Production
20.7 Primary Production Varies with Time
20.8 Primary Productivity Limits Secondary Production
20.9 Consumers Vary in Efficiency of Production
20.10 Ecosystems Have Two Major Food Chains
FIELD STUDIES: Brian Silliman
20.11 Energy Flows through Trophic Levels Can Be Quantified
20.12 Consumption Efficiency Determines the Pathway of Energy Flow through the Ecosystem
20.13 Energy Decreases in Each Successive Trophic Level
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Humans Appropriate a Disproportionate Amount of Earth’s Net Primary Productivity
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 20.1: Estimating Net Primary Productivity Using Satellite Data
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 21 Decomposition and Nutrient Cycling
21.1 Most Essential Nutrients Are Recycled within the Ecosystem
21.2 Decomposition Is a Complex Process Involving a Variety of Organisms
21.3 Studying Decomposition Involves Following the Fate of Dead Organic Matter
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 21.1: Estimating the Rate of Decomposition
21.4 Several Factors Influence the Rate of Decomposition
21.5 Nutrients in Organic Matter Are Mineralized During Decomposition
FIELD STUDIES: Edward (Ted) A. G. Schuur
21.6 Decomposition Proceeds as Plant Litter Is Converted into Soil Organic Matter
21.7 Plant Processes Enhance the Decomposition of Soil Organic Matter in the Rhizosphere
21.8 Decomposition Occurs in Aquatic Environments
21.9 Key Ecosystem Processes Influence the Rate of Nutrient Cycling
21.10 Nutrient Cycling Differs between Terrestrial and Open-Water Aquatic Ecosystems
21.11 Water Flow Influences Nutrient Cycling in Streams and Rivers
21.12 Land and Marine Environments Influence Nutrient Cycling in Coastal Ecosystems
21.13 Surface Ocean Currents Bring about Vertical Transport of Nutrients
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Agriculture Disrupts the Process of Nutrient Cycling
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 22 Biogeochemical Cycles
22.1 There Are Two Major Types of Biogeochemical Cycles
22.2 Nutrients Enter the Ecosystem via Inputs
22.3 Outputs Represent a Loss of Nutrients from the Ecosystem
22.4 Biogeochemical Cycles Can Be Viewed from a Global Perspective
22.5 The Carbon Cycle Is Closely Tied to Energy Flow
22.6 Carbon Cycling Varies Daily and Seasonally
22.7 The Global Carbon Cycle Involves Exchanges among the Atmosphere, Oceans, and Land
22.8 The Nitrogen Cycle Begins with Fixing Atmospheric Nitrogen
22.9 The Phosphorus Cycle Has No Atmospheric Pool
22.10 The Sulfur Cycle Is Both Sedimentary and Gaseous
22.11 The Global Sulfur Cycle Is Poorly Understood
22.12 The Oxygen Cycle Is Largely under Biological Control
22.13 The Various Biogeochemical Cycles Are Linked
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Nitrogen Deposition from Human Activities Can Result in Nitrogen Saturation
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Part 7 Ecological Biogeography
Chapter 23 Terrestrial Ecosystems
23.1 Terrestrial Ecosystems Reflect Adaptations of the Dominant Plant Life-Forms
23.2 Tropical Forests Characterize the Equatorial Zone
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 23.1: Climate Diagrams
23.3 Tropical Savannas Are Characteristic of Semiarid Regions with Seasonal Rainfall
23.4 Grassland Ecosystems of the Temperate Zone Vary with Climate and Geography
23.5 Deserts Represent a Diverse Group of Ecosystems
23.6 Mediterranean Climates Support Temperate Shrublands
23.7 Forest Ecosystems Dominate the Wetter Regions of the Temperate Zone
23.8 Conifer Forests Dominate the Cool Temperate and Boreal Zones
23.9 Low Precipitation and Cold Temperatures Define the Arctic Tundra
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: The Extraction of Resources from Forest Ecosystems Involves an Array of Management Practices
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 24 Aquatic Ecosystems
24.1 Lakes Have Many Origins
24.2 Lakes Have Well-Defined Physical Characteristics
24.3 The Nature of Life Varies in the Different Zones
24.4 The Character of a Lake Reflects Its Surrounding Landscape
24.5 Flowing-Water Ecosystems Vary in Structure and Types of Habitats
24.6 Life Is Highly Adapted to Flowing Water
QUANTIFYING ECOLOGY 24.1: Streamflow
24.7 The Flowing-Water Ecosystem Is a Continuum of Changing Environments
24.8 Rivers Flow into the Sea, Forming Estuaries
24.9 Oceans Exhibit Zonation and Stratification
24.10 Pelagic Communities Vary among the Vertical Zones
24.11 Benthos Is a World of Its Own
24.12 Coral Reefs Are Complex Ecosystems Built by Colonies of Coral Animals
24.13 Productivity of the Oceans Is Governed by Light and Nutrients
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Inputs of Nutrients to Coastal Waters Result in the Development of “Dead Zones”
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 25 Coastal and Wetland Ecosystems
25.1 The Intertidal Zone Is the Transition between Terrestrial and Marine Environments
25.2 Rocky Shorelines Have a Distinct Pattern of Zonation
25.3 Sandy and Muddy Shores Are Harsh Environments
25.4 Tides and Salinity Dictate the Structure of Salt Marshes
25.5 Mangroves Replace Salt Marshes in Tropical Regions
25.6 Freshwater Wetlands Are a Diverse Group of Ecosystems
25.7 Hydrology Defines the Structure of Freshwater Wetlands
25.8 Freshwater Wetlands Support a Rich Diversity of Life
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Wetland Ecosystems Continue to Decline as a Result of Land Use
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 26 Large-Scale Patterns of Biological Diversity
26.1 Earth’s Biological Diversity Has Changed through Geologic Time
26.2 Past Extinctions Have Been Clustered in Time
26.3 Regional and Global Patterns of Species Diversity Vary Geographically
26.4 Various Hypotheses Have Been proposed to Explain Latitudinal Gradients of Diversity
26.5 Species Richness Is Related to Available Environmental Energy
26.6 Large-scale Patterns of Species Richness Are Related to Ecosystem Productivity
26.7 Regional Patterns of Species Diversity Are a Function of Processes Operating at Many Scales
ECOLOGICAL ISUES & APPLICATIONS: Regions of High Species Diversity Are Crucial to Conservation Efforts
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
Chapter 27 The Ecology of Climate Change
27.1 Earth’s Climate Has Warmed over the Past Century
27.2 Climate Change Has a Direct Influence on the Physiology and Development of Organisms
27.3 Recent Climate Warming Has Altered the Phenology of Plant and Animal Species
27.4 Changes in Climate Have Shifted the Geographic Distribution of Species
27.5 Recent Climate Change Has Altered Species Interactions
27.6 Community Structure and Regional Patterns of Diversity Have Responded to Recent Climate Change
27.7 Climate Change Has Impacted Ecosystem Processes
27.8 Continued Increases in Atmospheric Concentrations of Greenhouse Gases Is Predicted to Cause Future Climate Change
27.9 A Variety of Approaches Are Being Used to Predict the Response of Ecological Systems to Future Climate Change
FIELD STUDIES: Erika Zavaleta
27.10 Predicting Future Climate Change Requires an Understanding of the Interactions between the Biosphere and the Other Components of the Earth’s System
Summary
Study Questions
Further Readings
References
Glossary
Credits
Index
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