دانلود کتاب Emulsions: Formation, Stability, Industrial Applications

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Preface\nContents\n1 Emulsions: Formation, stability, industrial applications\n 1.1 General introduction\n 1.2 Nature of the Emulsifier\n 1.3 Structure of the system\n 1.4 Breakdown processes in emulsions\n 1.5 Creaming and sedimentation\n 1.6 Flocculation\n 1.7 Ostwald ripening (disproportionation)\n 1.8 Coalescence\n 1.9 Phase inversion\n 1.10 Industrial applications of emulsions\n 1.11 Book outline\n2 Thermodynamics of emulsion formation and breakdown\n 2.1 The interface (Gibbs dividing line)\n 2.2 Thermodynamics of emulsion formation and breakdown\n3 Interaction forces between emulsion droplets\n 3.1 Van der Waals attraction\n 3.2 Electrostatic repulsion\n 3.3 Steric repulsion\n 3.3.1 Mixing interaction Gmix\n 3.3.2 Elastic interaction Gel\n 3.3.3 Total energy of interaction\n 3.3.4 Criteria for effective steric stabilization\n4 Adsorption of surfactants at the oil/water interface\n 4.1 Introduction\n 4.2 The Gibbs adsorption isotherm\n 4.3 Equation of state ppproach\n 4.4 The Langmuir, Szyszkowski and Frumkin equations\n 4.5 Effectiveness of surfactant adsorption at the liquid/liquid interface\n 4.6 Efficiency of adsorption of surfactant at the liquid/liquid interface\n 4.7 Adsorption from mixtures of two surfactants\n 4.8 Adsorption of macromolecules\n 4.9 Interfacial tension measurements\n 4.9.1 The Wilhelmy plate method\n 4.9.2 The pendent drop method\n 4.9.3 Sessile drop method\n 4.9.4 The Du Nouy ring method\n 4.9.5 The drop volume (weight) method\n 4.9.6 The spinning drop method\n5 Mechanism of emulsification and the role of the emulsifier\n 5.1 Introduction\n 5.2 Mechanism of emulsification\n 5.3 Role of surfactants in emulsion formation\n 5.3.1 Role of surfactants in reduction of droplet size\n 5.3.2 Role of surfactants in droplet deformation\n6 Methods of emulsification\n 6.1 Introduction\n 6.2 Rotor-stator mixers\n 6.2.1 Toothed devices\n 6.2.2 Batch radial discharge mixers\n 6.2.3 Design and arrangement\n 6.3 Flow regimes\n 6.3.1 Laminar flow\n 6.3.2 Turbulent flow\n 6.4 Membrane emulsification\n 6.5 Formulation variables and comparison of various emulsification methods\n7 Selection of emulsifiers\n 7.1 Introduction\n 7.2 The hydrophilic-lipophile balance (HLB) concept\n 7.3 The phase inversion temperature (PIT) concept\n 7.4 The cohesive energy ratio (CER) concept\n 7.5 The critical packing parameter (CPP) for emulsion selection\n 7.6 Stabilisation by solid particles (Pickering emulsions)\n8 Creaming/sedimentation of emulsions and its prevention\n 8.1 Introduction\n 8.2 Creaming or sedimentation rates\n 8.2.1 Very dilute emulsions (φ < 0.01)\n 8.2.2 Moderately concentrated emulsions (0.2 > φ > 0.1)\n 8.2.3 Concentrated emulsions (φ > 0.2)\n 8.3 Properties of a creamed layer\n 8.4 Prevention of creaming or sedimentation\n 8.4.1 Matching density of oil and aqueous phases\n 8.4.2 Reduction of droplet size\n 8.4.3 Use of “thickeners”\n 8.4.4 Reduction of creaming/sedimentation of emulsions using associative thickeners\n 8.4.5 Controlled flocculation\n 8.4.6 Depletion flocculation\n 8.4.7 Use of “inert” fine particles\n 8.4.8 Use of mixtures of polymers and finely divided particulate solids\n 8.4.9 Use of liquid crystalline phases\n9 Flocculation of emulsions\n 9.1 Introduction\n 9.2 Mechanism of emulsion flocculation\n 9.2.1 Flocculation of electrostatically stabilised emulsions\n 9.2.2 Flocculation of sterically stabilised emulsions\n 9.2.3 Weak flocculation of sterically stabilised emulsions\n 9.2.4 Depletion flocculation\n 9.2.5 Bridging flocculation by polymers and polyelectrolytes\n 9.3 General rules for reducing (eliminating) flocculation\n 9.3.1 Charge stabilised emulsions, e.g. using ionic surfactants\n 9.3.2 Sterically stabilised emulsions\n10 Ostwald ripening in emulsions and its prevention\n 10.1 Driving force for Ostwald ripening\n 10.2 Kinetics of Ostwald ripening\n 10.3 Reduction of Ostwald ripening\n 10.3.1 Addition of a small proportion of highly insoluble oil\n 10.3.2 Modification of the interfacial layer for reduction of Ostwald ripening\n 10.4 Influence of initial droplet size of emulsions on the Ostwald ripening rate\n11 Emulsion coalescence and its prevention\n 11.1 Introduction\n 11.2 Forces across liquid films\n 11.2.1 Disjoining pressure approach\n 11.2.2 Interfacial tension of liquid films\n 11.3 Film rupture\n 11.4 Rate of coalescence between droplets\n 11.5 Reduction of coalescence\n 11.5.1 Use of mixed surfactant films\n12 Phase inversion and its prevention\n 12.1 Introduction\n 12.2 Catastrophic inversion\n 12.3 Transitional inversion\n 12.4 The phase inversion temperature (PIT)\n13 Characterization of emulsions and assessment of their stability\n 13.1 Introduction\n 13.2 Assessment of the structure of the liquid/liquid interface\n 13.2.1 Double layer investigation\n 13.2.2 Measurement of surfactant and polymer adsorption\n 13.3 Assessment of creaming/sedimentation of emulsions\n 13.4 Assessment of flocculation, Ostwald ripening and coalescence\n 13.4.1 Optical microscopy\n 13.4.2 Electron microscopy\n 13.4.3 Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM)\n 13.5 Scattering techniques\n 13.5.1 Light-scattering techniques\n 13.5.2 Turbidity measurements\n 13.5.3 Light diffraction techniques\n 13.5.4 Dynamic light scattering – photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS)\n 13.5.5 Back-scattering techniques\n 13.6 Measurement of the rate of creaming or sedimentation\n 13.7 Measurement of rate of flocculation\n 13.8 Measurement of incipient flocculation\n 13.9 Measurement of Ostwald ripening\n 13.10 Measurement of the rate of coalescence\n 13.11 Bulk properties of emulsions. Equilibrium cream or sediment volume (or height)\n14 Industrial applications of emulsions\n 14.1 Introduction\n 14.2 Food emulsions\n 14.2.1 Food grade surfactants\n 14.2.2 Surfactant association structures, micro-emulsions and emulsions in food\n 14.3 Emulsions in cosmetics and personal care formulations\n 14.4 Emulsions in pharmacy\n 14.5 Emulsions in agrochemicals\n 14.6 Rolling oil and lubricant emulsions\nIndex