دانلود کتاب Encyclopedia of Lunar Science

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List of Topics About the Editor Associate Editor Section Editors Contributors A Absorption, Absorption Spectrum in Lunar Studies Definition Lunar Spectroscopy and Sensors Lunar Geology and Its Impact on Remote Absorption Profiles Critical Absorption Features on the Moon Pyroxenes Olivine Plagioclase Feldspar Absorption Recorded from the Spectra of Apollo Samples Visible to Near-Infrared (300-2600 nm) Near-Infrared/Short Wavelength Mid-Infrared (2500-8000 nm) Mid-Infrared (7000-9500 nm) Observations from Orbital Missions References Accretion of the Moon Synonyms Description Introduction Specific Character of the Earth-Moon System Mass Angular Momentum Density Composition Theory Accretion Methodologies Simulation Fundamentals Simulating a Large Impactor The Impact The Accretion Future Directions References Albedo of Lunar Features Definition Albedo of Lunar Regions Albedo of Lunar Swirls Space Weathering Effects Cross-References References Apollo 17: The Last Time Humans Walked on the Moon Introduction Apollo 17 Extravehicular Activities (Moon Walks) EVA 1 EVA 2 EVA 3 Beyond Apollo 17 Acknowledgment References Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicles Rover Carriers Increased Science Return from Moon Exploration Missions Communication and Science Equipment Carried on the Rovers Special Tools Carried on the Rovers Sample Collection and Stowage on Rover Carriers Cross-References References Apollo Program Introduction Apollo Program and Science Objectives Primary Science Results Regional Geological Investigations and Settings Apollo 11 [0.67N, 23.47E] Apollo 12 [3.01S, 23.42W] Apollo 14 [3.64S, 17.47W] Apollo 15 [26.13N, 3.63E] Apollo 16 [8.97S, 15.50E] Apollo 17 [20.19N, 30.77E] Achievements and Contributions from Apollo Samples Major Geochemical Distinction Mineralogy Petrology Close Relationship of Samples and Remote Sensing Data Chronology Detection of Lunar Interiors from ALSEP Lunar Seismology Thermal and Magmatic Evolution of the Moon Subsatellites on Orbits Determining Composition from Remotely Sensed Data Subsurface Structures Determination by Lunar Radar Sounder Cross-References References ARTEMIS Mission Theory and Application Basic Methodology Key Findings/Scientific Outcomes Future Directions References B Barycenter of the Earth-Moon System Definition Barycenters Two-Body Problem Earth-Moon System References Basalt Introduction Sample Studies Basaltic Samples Collected through the Apollo Missions Basaltic Samples Collected through the Luna Missions Lunar Basaltic Meteorites Remote Sensing Conclusions Cross-References References Basin Breccia Definition Introduction Lunar Breccia Classification Formation of Different Types of Lunar Breccias Geochemistry and Age Research Significance of Lunar Breccias Current Research Summary Cross-References Acknowledgment References Breccias C Center of Mass and Center of Figure of Moon, Gravity, and Inertia Definition Calculations of Offset Lunar Topography Evolution and Surface Materials Cross-References References Chandrayaan-1 Mission Introduction Instruments Onboard Chandrayaan-1 (Web Resources: See References) Terrain Mapping Camera (TMC) Hyper-Spectral Imager (HySI) Lunar Laser Ranging Instrument (LLRI) CIXS (Chandrayaan-1 Imaging X-Ray Spectrometer) High Energy X-Ray Spectrometer (HEX) Moon Mineralogy Mapper (M3) Sub Atomic Reflection Analyzer (SARA) Radiation Dose Monitor (RADOM) SIR-2 (Near Infrared Spectrometer) MIP (Moon Impactor Probe) Miniature Synthetic Aperture Radar (Mini-SAR) Concept of Measurement Sample Preparation Method of Measurement Quantification of Water Ice Campbell Model Study of Variability of Permittivity and Possible Landing Sites for Chandrayaan-2 Rover Using Multi-sensors Datasets Variations in Permittivity Microwave Emissivity Possible Landing Sites for Chandrayaan-2 Rover Circular Polarization Characteristics of South Polar Lunar Craters Using Chandrayaan-1 Mini-SAR and LRO Mini-RF Polarization and Its Properties Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) and Its Backscattered Signals Future Directions Based upon Findings of Chandrayaan-1 Mission, Leading to Chandrayaan-2 Conclusion Cross-References References Web Resources Chandrayaan-2 Mission Introduction Launch and Instrument Mission Objectives Overview of Chandrayaan-2 Mission Orbiter Payloads Lander Payloads Rover Payloads Cross-References Future Directions Conclusions/Summary References Chang´e Missions Cross-References References Chlorine Chronology, Lunar Samples Definition Chronology of lunar sample and its application in the study of lunar evolution Cross-References References Cis-lunar Trajectory Description Introduction Mission Orbits and Trajectories Conclusions Cross-References References Clementine Mission Introduction Mission Information and Science Objectives Instruments Science Results Topographic Mapping of the Moon Gravity Field of the Moon and Internal Structures Water Ice in Permanently Shaded Regions at Lunar South Poles Distributions and Abundances of Iron and Titanium Major Geological Terranes Division and Mineralogical Properties of the Lunar Crust Cross-References References Color of the Moon References Complex Crater Contribution of Surface Processes to the Lunar Exosphere Introduction Photon-Stimulated Desorption (PSD) Sodium and Potassium Photodesorption Experiments H2O Photodesorption Experiments Solar Wind Ion Irradiation Sputtering Yield Experiments Ion-Induced Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (SIMS) Experiments Thermal Desorption Thermal Desorption of Adsorbed Sodium Experiments Thermal Desorption of Adsorbed H2O Experiments Meteorite and Micrometeorite Bombardment Hypervelocity Impact and Pulse Laser Irradiation of Mineral Experiments Summary and Acknowledgments Cross-References References Cosmic Rays in the Lunar Environment Summary Introduction Cosmic Rays in the Heliosphere and in the Earth-Moon System Origin of Cosmic Rays Energy Spectrum and Composition Solar Radiation Antimatter in Cosmic Rays Uncharged Cosmic Rays Interaction of Cosmic Rays with the Moon Processes of Low-Energy Solar-Wind Ions Production of Secondary Radiation by High-Energy Cosmic Rays and SEP Selected Instruments CRaTER on the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter LND on Chang´E 4 Future Research Cross-References References Crustal Rocks Cryptomare and Its Mineralogy Introduction Different Types of Dark Halo Craters Extent of Cryptomare Regions on the Moon Pyroxene Mineralogy of the Cryptomare Th Concentration in the Cryptomare Units FeO in the Cryptomare Units Cryptomare Versus Other Lunar Rock Lithology Conclusions References Crystallization of the Lunar Magma Ocean Description Lunar Formation Mode of Crystallization Volatile Depletion Depth of the LMO Crystallization Sequence Major Element Trends Trace Element Depletions Lunar Oxygen Fugacity (fO2) KREEP Rare Earth Elements (REEs) Lunar Asymmetry Lunar Mantle Overturn Conditions That Enable Overturn Summary Cross-References References D Dark Mantling Deposits Density and Porosity Detection of Water Introduction Regions of Illumination Condition Hydrogen Distribution Hydroxyl Distribution Radar Experiments (Circular Polarization Ratio) Polar Temperature Confirming Abundance of Water Ice in Debris Plume from the Cabeus Crater in the LCROSS Impact Mission Conclusions References Dielectric Constant Differentiation of the Lunar Interior Definition/Description Introduction Lunar Interior: Geochemical Constraints and Implications for Thermal Structure Lunar Interior: Geophysical Constraints and Implications for Thermal Structure Future Directions Cross-References References E Early Bombardment Definition Possible Bombardment Chronology Lunar Samples, Basins, and Magmatism Cross-References References Early Geologic History of the Moon Introduction Early Lunar Differentiation and Overturn Early Magmatism Early Paleomagnetism Impact Processes Summary and Future Directions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Early Lunar Structures, Engineering Introduction Perilous Challenges for Surviving on the Moon Designing Lunar Habitats for Human Survival A Hazardous ``Mantle´´ for Building Structures Modeling Lunar Regolith for Experimentation on Earth Simulants to Study the Chemical Behavior of Lunar Regolith when Treated Regolith Simulants to Study Excavation and Soil Transportation Closed-Cycle Pneumatics for Excavating and Transporting Lunar Regolith Conclusion References Early Thermal Evolution of the Lunar Interiors Definition/Description Introduction Formation Hypotheses and Initial State of Accreting Moonlets Canonical Giant Impact Hypothesis Noncanonical Giant Impact Hypotheses Evolution of the Moonlets-Forming Disk Initial Thermal State of Accreting Moonlets Heat Sources Accretional Impact-Induced Heating Radiogenic Heating Gravitational-Setting-Induced Heating Tidal Heating Cooling, Solidification, and Differentiation of the Lunar Interiors Early Solidification by Accretion-Induced Pressure Changes Core-Mantle Differentiation Cooling Mechanisms: Convection and Thermal Radiation Cooling Rates: The Balance Between Convection and Thermal Radiation Crystallization and Fractionation of Lunar Magma Ocean and Associated Timescales Future Directions Cross-References Acknowledgment References Eclipse, Lunar Definition Theory and Application: The Necessary Geometry and Types of Eclipses Anatomy of a Lunar Eclipse Danjon Scale Future Directions: Scientific Uses of Lunar Eclipses Cross-References References Eclipse, Solar Definition Theory and Application: The Necessary Geometry and Types of Eclipses Phenomena Associated with Total Solar Eclipses Eclipse Families Future Directions: The Scientific Value of Total Solar Eclipses Cross-References References Electromagnetic Radiation Definition Production of Electromagnetic Radiation The Electromagnetic Spectrum Radio Waves Microwaves Infrared Light Visible Light Ultraviolet Waves X-Rays Gamma Rays References Ellipsoid Synonyms Definition Introduction Ellipses and Ellipsoids The Early Moon Orbit and Tides Shape of the Moon´s Current Orbit Torques and Precession Inclination and Eccentricity Earth-Moon Libration Orbit Around the Sun Cross-Reference References Emissivity Introduction Emissivity Emissivity, Radiant and Kinetic Temperatures Thermal Infrared Emission Spectroscopy for Compositional Mapping of Lunar Surface References Estimate of Lunar TiO2 and FeO with M3 Data Introduction Methods Results Conclusions References Evolution, Lunar: From Magma Ocean to Crust Formation Introduction The Lunar Magma Ocean Paradigm New Views of the Evolution of the Lunar Crust Remote-Sensing Records: A Compositionally Variable Lunar Crust Lunar Meteorite Record Sample Ages and Isotopic Anomalies Alternative Crust Formation Models Implications Acknowledgment References Explosive Volcanic Deposits F FeO Abundance Ferrous Content Flood Volcanism Fluorine Formation of the Moon G Grabens GRAIL Mission Overview Selection and Budget Scientific Objectives and Investigations Spacecraft Lunar Gravity and Ranging System (LGRS) Moon Knowledge Acquired by Middle-School Students (MoonKAM) Launch and Lunar Transit Science Phase and Termination Science Data Products Education and Public Outreach Cross-References Acknowledgment References Gravitational Field Measurements to Deduce the Lunar Interior Structure Introduction Spacecraft Range and Range-Rate Radio-Metric Measurements Limitations and Innovations for Measuring the Gravity of Earth and the Moon Gravitational Field Formulations Subsurface Features and Compensation Current Lunar Gravitational Field References H Highland Volcanism History of Lunar Science I Description Introduction The Moon and Calendars Motions of the Moon The Path of the Moon Eclipses Lunar Standstills Gravitational Effects Lunar Science After the Invention of the Telescope Theories of Lunar Formation References History of Lunar Science II Description Introduction Lunar Exploration Missions of the Space Race Lunar Missions after the Space Race Highlights of Significant Discoveries from These Missions Lunar Science as a Result of the Space Age References Hiten Mission Definition Mission Objectives and Instrumentation Multiple Lunar Swing-by Follow-on Missions References I Impact Crater Impact Ejecta Definition Introduction Continuous Ejecta Blankets Secondary Ejecta and Secondary Cratering Effect of Impact Angle Impact Melt Flows and Ponds Depth of Excavation References Impact Event, Total Lunar Eclipse Meteoroid Source Impactor Properties and Impact Flash Temperature Crater Size and Location Cross-References References Impact Melt Impact Processes on the Moon Synonyms Definition Topographic Feature Basic Methodology: Sample Analyses Basic Methodology: Remote Sensing Analyses Future Directions Cross-References References For More Information Regarding Impact Crater Processes and the Cratering History of the Moon, Please See Indigenous Lunar Volatiles Inertia, Inertial Frame Definition Moment of Inertia Lunar Reference System Cross-References References Infrared Radiation Introduction IR Exploration of Moon Laboratory IR Spectroscopy of Lunar Minerals and Analogues Major Results from Infrared Exploration of Moon Surface Mineralogy Role and Extent of Space Weathering Abundance and Distribution of Lunar Volatiles Thermophysical Properties Telescope Observations of Moon in the IR Spectral Region Future IR Spectrometers References Infrared Spectroscopy Synonyms Definition/Description Introduction Principle and Applications Applications Basic Methodology Conclusion/Summary Cross-References References Insolation and Temperature on the Moon Insolation Temperature Understanding Solar Insolation and Temperature on the Moon Solar Insolation at the Moon Temperatures on the Moon Historical Observations: Ground-Based Missions Support Recent and Present Observations Summary References Internal Structure/Mantle Motions of the Moon References Iron Abundance Iron Concentration, Lunar Surface Synonyms Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Using CSR Data Lucey Model A Linear Regression Approach A Polynomial Regression Approach Using LP-GRS data Measured Gamma-Ray Counting Rate Retrieving Iron Concentration Influential Factors Future Work Cross-References References Iron Content Isotopic Composition of the Moon and the Lunar Isotopic Crisis Introduction Origin of Isotopic Variations Mass-Independent Isotope Composition of the Moon Relevance of Mass-Independent Isotope Variations for the Origin of the Moon Mass-Dependent Isotope Composition of the Moon Relevance of Mass-Dependent Isotope Variations for the Origin of the Moon Future Directions Cross-References References Further Reading K Kaguya (SELENE) Mission Definition Mission Overview Technical Overview Discoveries and Research Cross-References References L Laboratory Analysis (Reflectance Spectroscopy) of Terrestrial Analogues Theory and Application Methodology Research Findings Band Center Mineral Chemistry: Single Phase Composite Band Band Depth Mineral Chemistry Mineral Abundance: Composite Band Particle Size Effect Critical Mode Future Directions References Large-Scale Faulting on the Moon Definition Styles of Lunar Faulting Large-Scale Lunar Thrust Faults Large-Scale Lunar Normal Faults Future Directions Cross-References References Laser Ranging Definition Introduction Description of the Lunar Retroreflectors Laser Ranging Stations First LLR Results Current Network International Laser Ranging Service Science Lunar Analysis Centers Last Improvements and Future New Retroreflectors Cross-References References LCROSS, Lunar Diviner Instrument Definition Mission Objectives Impact Dynamics Ejecta Plume Chemistry from Diviner References Legacy of the Apollo Seismic Experiments Definition Introduction The Apollo Seismic Experiments Passive Seismic Experiment (PSE) Active Seismic Experiment (ASE) Lunar Seismic Profiling Experiment (LSPE) Apollo 17´s Lunar Surface Gravimeter (LSG) Data Preservation The Rich Legacy of the Apollo Seismic Experiments ``Expect the Unexpected´´ Shallow Structure Beneath the Stations Crustal Thickness, Density, and Porosity Mantle Core Scattering and Attenuation Remaining Questions Cross-References Acknowledgment References LMO LRO Mini-RF Introduction Miniature Radio Frequency Radar System (Mini-RF) Mini-RF Instrument Investigation and Description Mini-RF Instrument Mini-RF Radar Observations for Identifying the Surface Characteristics (Rough, Smooth, or ICY) of Lunar Polar Craters Polar Mosaics Bistatic Observations Mini-RF Observations for Identifying the Nature of Lunar Volatiles of the LCROSS Impact Site Circular Polarization Ratio Impact Site Combined Observation of Mini-RF and Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Camera (LROC) of the Lunar Surface Mini-RF Observations of the Pyroclastic Deposit of the Lunar Surface Orientale Pyroclastic Mini-RF Radar Observations of Lunar Impact Melts and Ejecta Flows Mini-RF Polarimetric Data Surface Properties of Melt Flows Large (50+ km Diameter) Impact Craters Medium Size Craters (20-50 km Diameter) Small Size Craters (Diameter Less Than 20 km) Conclusion Cross-References References Web Resources Luna Missions Cross-References References Lunar Atmosphere Introduction Water-Group Volatiles Helium Argon Metals Conclusions References Lunar Atmosphere, Alkali Lunar Exosphere Characteristics of the Lunar Alkali Exosphere Plasma Effects Meteoritic Influences Atmospheric Escape Cross-References References Lunar Atmosphere, Composition Introduction Lunar Exospheric Dust Lunar Exospheric Structure and Composition Remote Sensing of Na and K Summary Acknowledgment References Lunar Atmosphere, Effects of Cometary Impacts Introduction Stage 1: The Initial Impact Stage 2: Fallback Stage 3: Atmospheric Evolution Stage 4: The Return to the Collisionless Limit Conclusion References Lunar Atmosphere, Energetic Neutral Atoms ENA Generation ENA Measurements The Moon Located in the Undisturbed Solar Wind Reflection Ratio Energy Spectrum Magnetic Anomalies Nightside Backscattered Helium Sputtered Oxygen ENA Imaging of the Lunar Surface The Moon Located in Earth´s Magnetosheath The Moon Located in Earth´s Plasma Sheet Cross-References References Lunar Atmosphere, Source and Loss Processes Sources Loss Processes Cross-References References Lunar Atmosphere, Transport and Storage of Volatiles Cross-References References Lunar Cartography Synonyms Definition Introduction Chronology of Lunar Mapping 1600-1958: Pre-telescope to the Space Age 1958-1972: The Beginning of Lunar Exploration by Spacecraft Soviet Union Missions: Luna and Zond United States Missions: Ranger, Surveyor, Lunar Orbiter, Apollo, and Mariner 10 Radar Mapping of the Moon 1989-1999: The Second Wave of Lunar Exploration United States Missions: Galileo, Clementine, and Lunar Prospector 2003-2020: Recent Lunar Cartographic Missions Europe: SMART-1 Japan: SELENE (Kaguya) China Missions: Chang´e 1-4 India Missions: Chandrayaan-1, 2 United States Missions: Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter, GRAIL Basic Methodology Recommended Cartographic Processing Steps Lunar Coordinate System and Reference Frame The Photogrammetric Control Process Additional Online Lunar Cartographic Resources Future Directions Cross-References References Lunar Chemistry Lunar Core Composition Introduction Siderophile Element Constraints on Composition of the Lunar Core Outlook Cross-References References Lunar Core Dynamo Introduction Timing and Lifetime of a Lunar Core Dynamo Mechanisms for Initiating and Sustaining a Lunar Core Dynamo Outlook Cross-References References Lunar Core Formation Introduction Modeling Conditions of Lunar Core Formation Outcome of Lunar Core Formation Studies Using Siderophile Element Depletions Outlook Cross-References References Lunar Crater Ejecta Formation of Ejecta Blankets Ejection Process Ejecta Emplacement Ejecta Thickness Ejecta Blanket Classification Morphology of Ejecta Facies Factors Affecting Ejecta Blanket Morphology Continuous Ejecta Blanket Features Lunar Impact Melts Discontinuous and Distal Ejecta Features Distal Rays Cross-References References Lunar Crater Observation and Sensing Satellite (LCROSS) Introduction LCROSS Mission Overview Site Selection Onboard Science Payload Observational Campaign A Deliberate Cratering Experiment Testing the Flash, Curtain, Crater Model Science Observations and Interpretations Location and Time of Impact Impact Flash Complex Plume Postimpact Plume Modeling Crater Evidence for Water How Much Water? Conclusions Cross-References References Web Resources Lunar Crust, Chemical Composition Definition Chemical Composition Feldspathic Highlands Terrane Procellarum KREEP Terrane (PKT) South Pole-Aitken Terrane (SPAT) Classification of Lunar Crustal Rocks Pristine Basaltic Volcanic Rocks Pristine Highland Rocks Other Pristine Highland Rock Types Highland Polymict Breccias Lunar Regolith and Soil Lunar Volatiles Conclusions Cross-References References Lunar Crust, Morphology Definition Morphology of the Lunar Surface Impact Craters and Basins Volcanic Landforms Irregular Mare Patches (IMP) Tectonic Features Lunar Swirls Conclusions Cross-References References Lunar Dirt Lunar Domes Morphometry Composition Classification of Lunar Domes Effusive Lunar Mare Domes Putative Intrusive Domes References Lunar Dust Exosphere Introduction Impact-Generated Dust Ejecta Electrostatically Lofted Dust Conclusions and Future Directions References Lunar Dust Toxicity Cross-References References Lunar Elemental Lunar Elemental Distribution Synonyms Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Lunar Soil Lunar Mare Basalt KREEP Highland Rocks Key Research Findings Future Directions References Lunar Fragments Lunar Geodesy Lunar Geological Timescale Cross-References References Lunar Glasses Lunar Impact Event: The 11 September 2013 Meteoroid Source Impactor Energy and Mass Crater Size and Location Cross-References References Lunar Impact Events, Luminous Efficiency and Energy of Introduction, the Luminous Efficiency Calculation of the Luminous Efficiency. References Lunar Impact Flashes, Causes and Detection Cross-References References Lunar Impact Flashes, Temperature Cross-References References Lunar Impact Melt Deposits Definition Introduction Earlier Work New Findings Impact Melt at Small Craters Impact Melt Mobility Impact Melt Morphology and Structure Large-Scale Mineralogical Character of Impact Melt Impact Melt Differentiation Future Directions References Lunar Interior, Geophysical Models Introduction Crustal Structure and Seismicity Mantle Structure and Seismicity The Core and the Core-Mantle Boundary Heat Flow and Thermal Structure Future Directions Cross-References References Lunar Interior, Halogens Synonyms Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Bulk Rock Glass Beads and Melt Inclusions Apatite Chlorine Isotopes Estimates of the F and Cl Contents of the Lunar Mantle Future Directions References Lunar Ionosphere Introduction Comparison with Planetary Ionospheres Space Plasma Environments Encountered by the Moon Sources, Sinks, and Dynamics In Situ Measurements During the Apollo Era Distant Detections of Lunar Ions in the Solar Wind Twenty-First-Century Observations from Lunar Orbit Early Radio Occultation Measurements Recent Radio Occultation Experiments Possible Mechanisms for Producing a ``Dense´´ Ionosphere Conclusions References Lunar Landscape, Highlands Definition Characteristics of Lunar Highland The Formation of Highland Future Directions Cross-References References Lunar Landscape, Impact Craters The Near Side The Far Side The Highlands The Maria Impact Craters Cross-References References Lunar Landscape, Maria Definition Characteristics of Lunar Mare The Formation of Mare Future Directions References Lunar Landscape: Domes Definition Classification of Lunar Domes Effusive Lunar Mare Domes Candidate Lunar Intrusive Domes Distribution and Morphometry Summary References Lunar Landscape: Grabens Synonyms Definition Theory and Application Pattern of Grabens on the Lunar Surface Age of Lunar Graben Formation of Lunar Graben Key Research Findings References Lunar Landscape: Rilles Definition Classification and Distribution Previous Studies Approximate Earth Observation Remote Observation of the Moon Based on Geology Morphology Based on Geology Process Summary Cross-References References Lunar Landscape: Wrinkle Ridges Wrinkle Ridge The Definition of Wrinkle Ridge The Characteristic of Wrinkle Ridge The Classification of Wrinkle Ridge Concentric Ridges Parallel Ridges Isolated Ridges The Methodology of Wrinkle Ridge Wrinkle Ridges on Other Planets The Future Directions of Wrinkle Ridge Research References Lunar Lava Tubes Heading Description Theory and Application (as Appropriate) Basic Methodology Key Research Findings Future Directions Cross-References References Lunar Length of Day Definition Orbit and Rotation Sidereal vs Synodic Cross-References References Lunar Libration Definition Theory and Application: General Lunar Motion and Librations General Lunar Motion Libration in Longitude Libration in Latitude Diurnal Libration Physical Libration The Libration Zones Importance of Understanding Lunar Libration References Lunar Magma Ocean Synonyms Definition Theory and Application Crystallization Experiments Future Work Cross-References References Lunar Magma Ocean Theory, Origins, and Rationale Introduction The Origin of the LMO Model Geochemical Evidence for Large-Scale Melting of the Moon A Global, Ancient, Plagioclase-Rich Crust The Complimentary Geochemistry of the Crust and Mantle The KREEP Reservoir and Its Geochemical and Isotopic Homogeneity Concluding Remarks References Lunar Magma Ocean, A Benchmark of Lunar and Planetary Geologic Theory References Lunar Magma Ocean, Comparison to Other Planetary Magma Oceans Introduction Mechanisms of Heat Production during Early Planetary Evolution Planetesimals: Asteroid Vesta and the Angrite Parent Body Mars Earth Mercury Outlook Cross-References References Lunar Magma Ocean, Composition of the Bulk LMO Introduction Bulk LMO Estimates Major and Trace Elements The Taylor Perspective (TWM) The Longhi Perspective (LPUM) Consequences of Differing Bulk LMO Estimates Garnet in the Lunar Mantle Future Directions and Concluding Remarks References Lunar Magma Ocean, Pre-Apollo, Apollo, and Post-Apollo Views Theory Pre-Apollo Apollo Post-Apollo Geochemical Views Geophysical Views Geochronological Views Cross-References References Lunar Magma Ocean, Size Introduction Geochemical Constraints on the Depth of the LMO Geophysical Constraints on the Depth of the LMO Conclusions References Lunar Magnetic Anomalies Former Lunar Internal Magnetizing Field Geologic Origin of Magnetic Anomaly Sources The Lunar Swirls and Space Weathering Cross-References References Lunar Mapping Lunar Mare Basalts, Stratigraphy of References Lunar Melts, Densities of Introduction Lunar Picritic Glasses Quantitative Constraints on Density of Lunar Melts Current Status Outlook Cross-References References Lunar Melts, Viscosity of Definition Introduction Quantitative Constraints on Viscosities of Lunar Melts Implications for Lunar Evolution/Current Status Outlook References Lunar Meteorites Cross-References References Lunar Mineral Distribution Silicate Minerals Pyroxene Plagioclase Olivine Silica Minerals Other Silica Minerals Oxide Mineral Ilmenite Spinels Armalcolite Other Oxides Sulfide Mineral Troilite Other Sulfides Native Fe Phosphate Minerals Cross-References References Lunar Occultations, Grazing Introduction History of Grazing Occultations Early Grazes Found by Thomas van Flandern at the USNO References Lunar Orbit Lunar Particles Lunar Permanently Shaded Areas Definition Introduction Applications and Theory Conclusion/Summary Cross-References References Lunar Photometry Lunar Orbit, Distance, and Solar Phase Angle Photometry Introduction Key Research Findings: Photometric Models Geometric Albedo of the Moon Future Directions References Lunar Primitive Crust, Evolution of General Overview Magmatic Evolution of the Lunar Crust Lunar Crustal Composition Lunar Crustal Rocks Lunar Crustal Minerals Lunar Crustal Chemistry Crustal Variations with Depth Limitations in Previous Studies References Lunar Prospector Mission Introduction Mission Information and Science Objectives Instruments Science Results K, Th, (U), and KREEP from GRS Elements of Lunar Composition (Fe, Ti, Mg, Al, Ca, Si, O, Gd, Sm) by GRS and NS Improved Gravity Models and Magnetic Field of the Moon and the Core Size Derived Potential Evidence of Presence of Water Ice at the Poles Maps of Neutron Flux Cross-References References Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) Mission Introduction Mission Information and Science Objectives Instruments Main Science Results Submeter-Scale Images for Assessing Past and Future Landing Sites and Feature Sites Morphology and Tectonics Studies of the Lunar Surface with High-Resolution Topographic Maps Illumination Condition at the Poles Water Ice Deposits at the Poles The Newest Distribution of Permanently Illuminated and Shadowed Areas on the Moon Distribution of Silicate Rocks and Highly Evolved Magma Maps and Images from LRO Mission References Lunar Regolith Simulants Synonyms Definition Application Need for Simulants Types of Simulants Producing a Simulant Limitations of Simulants Examples of Simulants Cross-References References Lunar Regolith: Materials Synonyms Introduction Lunar Volcanic Glasses Lunar Impact Glasses Glass Spheres Versus Glass Shards (Angular Fragments) Target Material Crater Size Agglutinates Other Glassy Particles Human Exploration Particulate Matter Helium-3 Water Conclusion References Lunar Rocks Synonyms Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Concepts and Examples Ferroan Anorthositic Suite Magnesian Intrusive Suite Alkali Intrusive Suite KREEP Basalts Breccias Mare Basalts Pyroclastic Deposits Lunar Meteorites Recent Key Research Findings Future Directions More Information References Lunar Soil Lunar Soil Simulants Lunar Surface Composition from X-ray Fluorescence Measurements X-Ray Fluorescence (XRF) X-Ray Fluorescence for Elemental Mapping Summary Cross-References References Lunar Surface, Bulk Density and Porosity Synonyms Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Early Inferred Values of Bulk Density Based on Remote Sensing Robotic Measurements of Bulk Density on the Lunar Surface Inferred Values of Bulk Density Based on Correlations with Simulated Lunar Soil Measurements of Bulk Density on Returned Core Samples Best Estimates of Bulk Density Porosity of Lunar Soil Density Versus Depth: Some Speculation Future Directions Cross-References References Lunar Surface, Dielectric Permittivity Synonyms Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Best Estimates Future Works Cross-References References Lunar Surface, Electrical Conductivity Synonyms Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Best Estimates of Electrical Conductivity Related Work Cross-References References Lunar Surface, Gravity Field Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Spherical Harmonic Potential Model Discrete Mass Model Line of Sight (LOS) Acceleration Model Development of Gravity Model Lun60D Model Gravity Models from Clementine: GLGM-1, 2, and 3 Models Based on Lunar Prospector Data Models Based on SELENE Data Models Based on Chang´E Data Models Based on LRO LOLA Data Models Based on Grail Data Future Work Cross-References References Lunar Surface, Interaction of the Solar Wind with Upper Regolith Definition Implantation of Protons Amount of OH Alteration of the Regolith Wind Spacecraft The Apollo SWC Experiment Cross-References References Lunar Surface, Magnetic Field Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Measurement at Moon Surface Measurement from Lunar Orbit Indirect Measurements Best Estimates Future Work Cross-References References Lunar Surface, Seismic Properties The Apollo Passive Seismic Experiment The Sources of Seismicity Deep Moonquakes Thermal Moonquakes Shallow Moonquakes Meteoroid Impacts The Application of the Seismic Data Future Work Need for a Global Lunar Seismic Network Required Technological Advances Cross-References References Lunar Tectonics Cross-References References Lunar Tectonism, History of Definition Introduction Extensional Structures Shortening Structures Synthesis Cross-References References Lunar Terrane Tectonics Highland-Mare Dichotomy FHT-PKT-SPAT Ternary Geochemical Terrane Tectonics Highland-Mare-SPA Ternary Terrane Tectonics Cross-References References Lunar Transient Phenomena Definition Overview History Observing Programs TLP Statistics Theories Summary References Lunar Ultraviolet Spectroscopy Definition/Description Past and Current Projects Composition of the Lunar Exosphere Albedo Hydration Weathering Lunar Swirls References Lunar Volatiles M Magmasphere Magnetic Properties at the Lunar Surface Definition The Apollo Mission and Natural Remanent Magnetization Present Study of Magnetic Field Investigation on Origin of Lunar Magnetism Cross-References References Magnetometry Definition/Description Introduction Orbital Lunar Magnetometers Surface Lunar Magnetometers Toward the Future References Mantle Introduction Geophysical Constraints Remote Sensing Constraints Lithological Constraints Geochemical Constraints Cross-References References Mantle Convection Introduction General Concept of Mantle Convection The Initial Stage Is Set by LMO Crystallization Symmetric LMO Crystallization and Mantle Overturn Symmetric LMO Crystallization and Mantle Mixing Asymmetric LMO Crystallization and Mantle Dynamics Conclusion and Outlook Cross-References References Mantle Rocks Mare Basalt Mascons Definition Morphology and Formation Examples of Mascons Cross-References References MIDAS System Cross-References References Modeling of the Lunar Magma Ocean Definition/Description Introduction Key Model Parameters Crystallization Sequence Interstitial Melt Bulk Composition and Initial Thickness Heat Budget Tidal Heating Key Constraints on Models Thickness and Age of the Crust Hemispheric Asymmetry Outlook Cross-References References Moon History Overall Lunar Geology Lunar Magma Ocean and the Lunar Interior Impact Processes and the Lunar Surface Lunar Regolith Major Lunar Terranes Procellarum KREEP Terrane The Lunar Basaltic Maria Feldspathic Highlands Terrane The Plutonic Suites South Pole-Aitken Terrane Summary References Moon: Origin, Alternative Theories Definition Capture Fission Co-accretion References Moon: Seismicity Definition Introduction Artificial Impacts Meteoroid Impacts Shallow Moonquakes Deep Moonquakes Thermal Moonquakes Acknowledgment References Multi-ring Basin N Noble Gases Definition Introduction Helium Neon Argon Radon Summary Cross-References References Non-mare Volcanism O Opposition Effect Definition Theory and Application: Physical Causes and Mechanisms Observations and Results Modeling the Opposition Surge Summary Cross-References References Optical Maturity (OMAT) Definition Introduction Theory and Application: How OMAT Is Determined Results and Applications of OMAT Conclusions and Future Directions Cross-References References Orbit of the Moon Origin and Evolution of the Moon: Tungsten Isotopic Constraints Introduction Key Principles: Tungsten Isotopes and the Hf-W Chronometer Tungsten Isotope Studies of Lunar Samples Key Research Findings Timescales of Lunar Differentiation Origin of 182W Excess in the Moon Constraints on the Origin of the Moon Conclusions and Outlook References Origin of the Moon, Impactor Theory Definition Impactor Theory Evidence for Planet-Scale Collision Theia Isotope Constraints References P Peak-Ring Crater Plasma Environment of the Moon Global Plasma Interaction with the Moon Near-Surface Plasma Interaction Lunar Magnetic Anomalies Final Remarks Acknowledgment References Polar Ice on the Moon Definition Observational and Theoretical Evidences Characteristics of H2O Occurrence Modeling of Polar H2O on the Moon Ice Formation Methods References Polarimetry Measurements of the Moon Theory, History, and Application Basic Methodology Disk-Integrated Polarization Results Disk-Resolved Polarization Measurements Earthshine Studies Polarization of the Moonlit Sky Radio Studies Key Research Findings Future Directions Cross-References References Pristine Rocks Pyroclastic Deposits, Remote Sensing of Synonyms Definition General Overview Detailed Description of Lunar Pyroclastic Deposits from Remote Sensing Data Remote Sensing of Regional Pyroclastic Deposits Remote Sensing of Localized Pyroclastic Deposits Marius Hills Broader Impacts and Future Directions Cross-References References R Radiation Environment of the Moon Introduction Basic Concepts Space Radiation Environment on the Lunar Surface Cancer Risk Evaluation References Radio Astronomy with the Moon Introduction Lunar Environment Lunar Radio Pathfinder Missions Future Directions and Plans References Ranger Missions The Beginnings Block I and II Ranger Missions Block III Ranger Missions Reflectance Spectrophotometry Reflectance Spectroscopy Synonyms Definition/Description Introduction Theory and Applications Basic Methodology Future Directions Conclusions/Summary Cross-References References Reflection and Emission of Radiation from the Moon Definition Theory and Application Basic Methodology Optical Astronomy Radar Astronomy Thermal Emission Astronomy Future Work Cross-References References Reflectivity Definition Theory and Application Identification and Mapping of Lunar Major Minerals Identification and Mapping of Lunar Major Elements Identification and Mapping of Lunar Hydrated Minerals Interpretation of Lunar Maturity Key Research Findings Conclusion References Regolith Physical Properties Definition Regolith Thickness Particle Size Particle Shape Specific Gravity Porosity Bulk Density Thermal Conductivity Thermal Capacity Electrical Conductivity Photoconductivity Dielectric Permittivity Cross-References References Regolith Production by Thermal Stress Weathering Definition/Description Introduction Thermal Breakdown of Regolith References Regolith Structure Basic Theory of the Regolith Structure The Concept of the Lunar Regolith The Formation Process of Lunar Regolith The Characteristics of the Lunar Regolith The Composition of the Lunar Regolith Agglutinates Crystalline Lithic Fragments Breccias Mineral Fragments Glass The Key Research Findings of the Lunar Regolith The Studies of Lunar Regolith Samples The Measurements to the Lunar Regolith Thickness The Spectral Properties of the Lunar Regolith The Future Directions of the Lunar Regolith Cross-References References Regolith Thickness Introduction Methodology Results and Discussion Regolith Thickness from In Situ FeO+TiO2 Values Regolith Thickness Estimation over Infilled Crater Floor Summary References Remote Sensing in the Thermal Infrared Description Background Earth-based Observations Spacecraft Observations Future Observations References S Saros Cycle Definition Introduction: A Brief History Description of How Saros Works A Harmony of Months Saros and Solar Eclipses Saros and Lunar Eclipses Conclusion Cross-References References Satellite, Natural Definition Theory and Application: The Earth-Moon System Origins and Orbits Summary Cross-References References Selenodesy Synonyms Definition Introduction History of Selenodesy Theory and Application The Figure(s) of the Moon Lunar Coordinate System and Reference Frame Basic Methodology Point Positioning Telescopic Measurements Photogrammetry Ranging Laser Altimetry Measuring the Moon´s Gravity Field Satellite Gravimetry Surface Gravimetry Additional Online Selenodesy Resources Future Directions Cross-References References Shock Metamorphism Definition Introduction Shock Features Shatter Cones Undulatory Extinction Mosaicism Planar Microstructures Diaplectic Glass High-Pressure Polymorphs Methods to Study Shock Features X-Ray Diffraction Cathodoluminescence (CL) Infrared Spectroscopy Raman Spectroscopy Dynamic Shock Experiments Progressive Shock Metamorphism Future Directions Cross-References References Sidereal Period Definition Theory and Application: Sidereal Versus Synodic Period Orbital Period Defined The Lunar Months and the Lunar Sidereal Period Summary Cross-References References Siderophile Elements in the Lunar Mantle Introduction Estimating Siderophile Elements in the Bulk Silicate Moon Abundances of Siderophile Elements in the Lunar Mantle Outlook References Silica, Silicate Introduction Lunar Mineralogy Silicate Minerals Olivine Pyroxene Plagioclase Feldspar Silica Rare Silicate Minerals Global Lunar Silicates Obtained Through Remote Sensing Summary References Silicic Volcanism Silicic Volcanism on the Moon Synonyms Description/Comments Definition Overview Key Research Findings Future Directions Cross-References References Simple Crater SMART-1 Mission Introduction Mission Design Technology Objectives Scientific Objectives Spacecraft Solar Electric Primary Propulsion Payload Trajectory Design Mission Operations Launch and Early Operations Cruise Phase Lunar Phase Impact and End of Mission Science and Exploration Results Lunar Polar Studies Collaborations with Other Lunar Missions and Preparation for Future Exploration Conclusion Acknowledgment References Bibliography Specific Conductance Spectral Reflectance Subsurface Geology from Remote Sensing References Sulfides in the Moon Introduction Formation Mechanisms and Chemical Composition of Primary Troilite in Lunar Samples Sulfide Saturation of the Lunar Mantle? Sulfur Contents of the Bulk Moon and Loss of S? Outlook Cross-References References Surface and Near-Surface Thermal Environment of the Moon Introduction Observations Remote Sensing of Surface Temperature Bolometric Brightness Temperature Field of View of the Instrument and Integration Time The Nature of Lunar Regolith Emissivity of the Lunar Surface Surface Roughness Thermal Skin Depth Scientific Results and Questions Permanently Shadowed Regions and Cold Trapping of Volatiles Heat Flow Cold Spots Surface Rock Abundance References Surface of the Moon, Distribution of Materials and Structures Introduction Lunar Rocks Mare Basalt Highland Anorthosite Lunar Minerals Silicate Minerals Oxide Minerals Lunar Chemistry PKT FHT SPA Lunar Structure Lunar Water Future Directions References Surveyor Imagery Introduction Comments on the Quality of the Images Sample Image Frame Brief Science Results from the Imagery References Journal Articles Conference Papers Technical Reports Books Surveyor: The Science Surveyor: The Science Experiments Onboard the Surveyor Landings Summary of the Major Scientific Results of the Five Successful Surveyor Landings Results Specific to Each Experiment Television Topographic Mapping Methods Soil Mechanics and Surface Sampling Experiment (SM/SS) Alpha-Scattering Instrument Experiment (ASI) (Fig. 9) Lunar Surface Temperatures and Thermal Characteristics (Missions All) Lunar Surface Electromagnetic and Magnetic Properties (Missions V, VI, VII) Magnet Experiments (Missions V-VII) Laser Beams Pointing Tests (Mission VII) Astronomical Observations Effects of Lunar Particles on Spacecraft Surfaces (Missions All) Unexpected Observations Summary Cross-References References Journal Articles Technical Reports Surveyor: The Spacecraft Surveyor Pointed the Way to the Moon Basic Design Features The Pathfinder Surveyor-1 Test, Launch and Mission History A Personal View of the Surveyor Project and the Climate of the Times: Walt McCandless, Surveyor-1 Test Director, Hughes Aircra... The Technology Base Teamwork Top-Down Support Result Instruments Aboard Surveyor Missions The Surveyor Television Camera Camera Optical System Camera Modes of Operation Camera Calibration Lunar Environment Results The Soil Mechanics and Surface Sampler Instrument (SM/SS) Alpha Scattering Instrument Summary Cross-References References T The Giant Impact Hypothesis The Lunar Atmosphere and Dust Environment Experiment (LADEE) Mission Definition Introduction LADEE Mission Spacecraft Instrumentation Neutral Mass Spectrometer (NMS) Ultraviolet-Visible Spectrometer (UVIS) Lunar Dust Experiment (LDEX) Laser Communication Demonstration References Thermal Infrared Spectroscopy Thermal Stress Weathering of Boulders on Airless Bodies Definition Types of Stresses Rock Properties Damage Effects Cross-References References Thermophysical Behavior of the Lunar Surface Introduction Significance of Thermophysical Behavior and Heat Flow on the Moon Previous Measurements and Inferences Remote Observations Ground-Based Observations Orbiter Observations In Situ Observations Model Studies Status of Current Understanding Lunar Surface Thermophysical Properties and Their Interdependence Open Questions Summary and Future Course of Directions Cross-References References Topographic Studies of the Moon Introduction Scope Lunar Topographic Structures Techniques Telescopic Spacecraft Data Sources and Software Atlases Books Amateur Images Solar System Exploration Research Virtual Institute Lunar and Planetary Institute SAO/NASA Astrophysics Data System Software Lunar Terminator Visualization Tool Ephemeris Data References Total Lunar Occultations Basics of Occultations Scientific Uses of Occultations Lunar Occultations What You Need in the Way of Knowledge and Equipment What an Observer Should Expect to See The Need for Accurate Timing IOTA Cross-References References U Ultraviolet Radiation Definition Lunar Dusty Plasma Apollo 17 UVS LADEE UVS Cross-References References V Vibrational Spectroscopy Visible and Near-Infrared Spectroscopy Synonyms Definition/Description Introduction Theory and Applications Spectral Characteristics of Important Lunar Minerals in VNIR Region Key Research Findings Future Directions Conclusion Cross-References References Volatiles on the Lunar Surface and Subsurface Definition Introduction Lunar Polar Volatiles Global, Nonpolar Lunar Volatiles Summary Cross-References References Volcanic Glass Volcanic Processes on the Moon Synonyms Definition Basic Methodology Concepts and Examples Composition of Returned Lunar Basalts Flood Basalts Shield Volcanoes Pyroclastic Deposits Nonbasaltic Volcanism Sinuous Rilles and Lava Tubes Cryptomaria and Dark-Haloed Craters Domes and Cones Ages of Basalts References W Water in the LMO The Dry Moon Paradigm The Fate of H2O, F, and Cl in the LMO Abundance of Volatiles in the Mantle Abundance of Volatiles in urKREEP Abundance of Volatiles in the Bulk Silicate Moon Source(s) and Timing of Delivery of Indigenous Lunar Water Future Directions References Weathering Definition/Description Space Weathering: A Historical Perspective Space Weathering Processes: The Different Agents of Space Weathering Impact from Micrometeoroids (Small ``Dust´´ Particles or Debris) Radiation Damage from Electromagnetic Radiation and Energetic Particles The Primary Agents of Space Weathering Solar Wind Solar Cosmic Rays Galactic Cosmic Rays Maturation and Evolution of the Lunar Regolith The Effects of Space Weathering References Y Young Volcanism on the Moon Introduction The Topical Phase of Lunar Volcanism (<100 Ma) The Lowell Crater Formation, Orientale Basin The Ina and Similar Features Discussion Concluding Remarks References Z Zond Missions Cross-References References