دانلود کتاب Environmental Problem-Solving: Balancing Science and Politics Using Consensus Building Tools: Guided Readings and Assignments from MIT’s Training Program for Environmental Professionals

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Cover Front Matter Half-Title page Title page Copyright information Contents Acknowledgments Credits and Permission Units Introduction Scenario Assignments Unit I Influencing the Environmental Policy-Making Process Introduction Commentaries and Reading Excerpts Steven Cohen — “Understanding Environmental Policy” and “A Framework for Understanding the Environmental Policy Issue.” In Understanding Environmental Policy. New York: Columbia University Press. Reading Commentary Chapter 1 Understanding Environmental Policy Differing Perspectives on Environmental Policy Developing a Framework to Help Understand Environmental Issues Applying the Framework to a Set of Environmental Issues Toward an Interdisciplinary Understanding of Environmental and Sustainability Policy Chapter 2 A Framework for Understanding the Environmental Policy Issue Values Applying the Values Dimension of the Framework Environmental Politics Applying the Political Dimension of the Framework Science, Technology, and the Environment Applying the Science and Technology Dimension of the Framework Environmental Policy Design and Economic Factors as an Influence on Damaging Corporate and Private Behaviors Defining Regulation Policy Design: How to Develop and Implement a Regulatory Strategy The Tools of Strategic Regulation A Strategic Approach to Regulation Policy Design that Regulates Individual Behavior and Stimulates Social Learning Applying the Policy Design Dimension of the Framework Environmental and Sustainability Management Applying the Management Dimension of the Framework Next Steps Notes Michael Howlett, M. Ramesh and Anthony Perl — “Agenda-Setting,” “Policy Formulation and Policy Design, “Public Policy Decision-Making and Policy Implementation” and “Policy Evaluation: Policy Making as Learning.” In Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles & Reading Commentary Chapter 4 Agenda-​Setting The Objective Construction of Policy Problems: The Role of Social Conditions and Structures The Subjective Construction of Policy Problems: The Role of Policy Actors and Paradigms Combining Ideas, Actors, and Structures in Multi-​Variable Models of Agenda-​Setting Funnel of Causality Issue -Attention Cycles Modes of Agenda-​Setting Linking Agenda-​Setting Modes to Content: Policy Windows and Policy Monopolies Conclusion: Revisiting Agenda-​Setting Modes Through a Policy Subsystem Lens Notes Chapter 5 Policy Formulation: Policy Instruments and Policy Design What is Policy Formulation? The Phases of Policy Formulation The General Content of Policy Formulation The Substance of Policy Formulation: Policy Instruments Taxonomies of Policy Instruments Note Chapter 6 Public Policy Decision-​Making Actors in the Decision-​Making Process Choices: Negative, Positive, and Non-​Decisions Chapter 7 Policy Implementation Actors and Activities in Policy Implementation Chapter 8 Policy Evaluation: Policy-​Making as Learning Positivist and Post-​Positivist Policy Evaluation Policy Evaluation as Policy Learning Evidence-​Based Policy-​Making as Policy Learning Assessing Policy Success or Failure Lawrence Susskind — “The Environment and Environmentalism.” In Local Planning: Contemporary Principles and Practice. Washington, DC: ICCMA Press. Reading Commentary The Environment and Environmentalism The Costs of Mismanaging Natural Resources Individual and Collective Responsibility for the Environment Environmental Planning at the Local Level A Values-Based Approach Collaborative Environmental Decision Making Tools for Environmental Planning New Kinds of Partnerships No Right Answers, Only Informed Agreements Note Elinor Ostrom — “The Future of the Commons: Beyond Market Failure and Government Regulations.” In The Future of the Commons: Beyond Market Failure and Government Regulations. London: Institute of Economic Affairs. Reading Commentary Chapter 3 The Future of the Commons: Beyond Market Failure and Government Regulation Introduction Challenges in Achieving Sustainability The Importance of Second-​Tier Variables Questions that can be Addressed in our Research Framework Design Principles for the Management of Natural Resource Systems What have we Learned? The Relationship Between Larger and Smaller Units of Governance Conclusion Scenario Assignment: Policy Evaluation Scenario Assignment: Comparative Policy Analysis End of Unit I Written Assignment: National Environmental Policy-​Making First Example Response to Assignment:  National Environmental Policy-​Making in the United Kingdom Second Example Response to Assignment: A Model of Environmental Policy-​Making in the United States Unit II Ethical Dilemmas in Environmental Problem-Solving Introduction Commentaries and Reading Excerpts Joseph R. DesJardins — Environmental Ethics: An Introduction to Environmental Philosophy. Belmont: Wadsworth. Reading Commentary Chapter 2 Part 2.2 Philosophical Ethics: Getting Comfortable With the Topic Chapter 3 Part 3.7 Ethical Analysis and Environmental Economics Chapter 5 Part 5.5 Do Trees Have Standing? Chapter 6 Part 6.2 Instrumental Value and Intrinsic Value Chaper 9 Part 9.2 Deep Ecology Part 9.3 The Deep Ecology Platform Part 9.4 Metaphysical Ecology Part 9.7 Criticisms of Deep Ecology Notes Jason Corburn — “Local Knowledge in Environmental Health Policy.” In Street Science: Community Knowledge and Environmental Health Justice. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Reading Commentary Chapter 1 Local Knowledge In Environmental Health policy The Tensions Between Communities and Professionals Antecedents to Street Science Environmental-​Health Justice and Street Science Democracy and Local Knowledge Technocracts, Science, and Local Knowledge The Co-​Production of Expertise Street Science as a Practice Notes Scenario Assignment: The Precautionary Principle Scenario Assignment: Sustainability versus Economic Development Scenario Assignment: Local Knowledge versus Expert Knowledge End of Unit II Written Assignment: Environmental Ethics First Example Response to Assignment: Environmental Ethics and Sustainable Development Second Example Response to Assignment: The Ethics of Sustainable Development Unit III Developments in Policy and Project Analysis Introduction Commentaries and Reading Excerpts Lawrence Susskind, Ravi K. Jain and Andrew O. Martyniuk — “How Environmental Policy Studies Can Be Used Effectively” and “How Policy Studies Should Be Organized.” In Better Environmental Policy Studies. Washington, DC: Island Press. Reading Commentary Chapter 3 How Environmental Policy Studies Can be Used Effectively Six Effective Policy Studies The “Uses” of Effective Policy Studies The Spotted Owl and Ecosystem Management in the Pacific Northwest The Challenges Concluding Remarks Chapter 4 How Policy Studies Should Be Organized Six Organizational Tasks Selecting and Using Experts Shaping the Relationship Between Sponsors and Experts Choosing the Right Institutional Auspices Reviewing Policy Study Results Learning from Policy Studies Setting the Policy Research Agenda A Look in the Rearview Mirror Concluding Remarks Arwin van Buuren and Sibout Nooteboom — “Evaluating Strategic Environmental Assessment in The Netherlands: Content, Process and Procedure as Indissoluble Criteria for Effectiveness.” Journal of Impact Assessment and Project Appraisal. Reading Commentary Evaluating Strategic Environmental Assessment in the Netherlands: Content, Process and Procedure as Indissoluble Criteria for Effectiveness Characteristics of an Effective Sea Criteria for Sea Effectiveness Methodology Case Studies Southern Sea Line Analysis IJssel Delta South Analysis Case comparison Conclusion and discussion References David Pearce, Giles Atkinson and Susana Mourato — “Executive Summary,” “The Stages of Practical Cost-Benefit Analysis” and “Cost-Benefit Analysis and Other Decision-Making Procedures.” In Cost Benefit Analysis and the Environment: Recent Developments. Par Reading Commentary Cost-​Benefit Analysis and the Environment Recent Developments Introduction History and Uses of CBA Theoretical Foundations The Stages of CBA Decision Rules Dealing with Costs Total Economic Value Revealed Preference Valuation Stated Preference Valuation: Contingent Valuation Stated Preference Valuation: Choice Modelling Option Value WTP Versus WTA? Valuing Ecosystem Services Discounting Valuing Health and Life Equity Sustainability and CBA Benefits Transfer CBA and Other Decision-​Making Guidance Some Political Economy 3.1. Achieving Air Quality Targets in Europe Chapter 18 Cost-Benefit Analysis and Other Decision-​Making Procedures 18.1. A gallery of Procedures 18.2. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) 18.3. Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) 18.4. Life Cycle Analysis (LCA) 18.5. Risk Assessment (RA) 18.6. Comparative Risk Assessment (CRA) 18.7. Risk-​Benefit Analysis (RBA) 18.8. Risk-​Risk Analysis (RRA) 18.9. Health-​Health Analysis (HHA) 18.10. Cost-​Effectiveness Analysis (CEA) 18.11. Multi-​Criteria Analysis (MCA) 18.12. Summary and Guidance for Decision-​Makers Annex 18.A1 Multi-​criteria Analysis and the “Do Nothing” Option Robert Costanza, Rudolf de Groot, Paul Sutton, Sander van der Ploeg, Sharolyn J. Anderson, Ida Kubiszewski, Stephen Farber, R. Kerry Turner —“Changes in the Global Value of Ecosystem Services.” Journal of Global Environmental Change. Reading Commentary Changes in the Global Value of Ecosystem Services 1. Introduction 2. What is Valuation? 3. Valuation is not Privatization 4. Uses of Valuation of Ecosystem Services 5. Aggregating Values 6. Estimates of Global Value 7. Caveats and Misconceptions 8. Conclusions References Donald Ludwig — “Limitations of Economic Valuation of Ecosystems.” Ecosystems Journal. Reading Commentary Limitations of Economic Valuation of Ecosystems Introduction Higher Domains of Value Economic Assumptions are Often Inappropriate Market Measures or Surveys are Inappropriate for Decisions that Involve Important Ecological Questions The Methods Used for Economic Valuation are Flawed Bluff and Bluster References Howard Kunreuther and Paul Slovic — “Challenges in Risk Assessment and Risk Management.” Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Reading Commentary Challenges in Risk Assessment and Risk Management The Need for a New Perspective Organization of this volume Uncertainty and Risk Assessment Valuation and Risk Risk Communication The Process of Risk Management Risk Management Strategies John Sterman — “A Skeptic’s Guide to Computer Models.” In Managing a Nation: The Microcomputer Software Catalog. Boulder, CO: Westview Press. Reading Commentary A Skeptic’s Guide to Computer Models The Inevitability of Using Models Mental and Computer Models The Importance of Purpose Two Kinds of Models: Optimization Versus Simulation and Econometrics Optimization Simulation Econometrics Checklist for the Model Consumer Conclusions References “Scenario Planning,” “Scenario Methodology” and “Driving Forces.” In Puget Sound Future Scenarios. UW Urban Ecology Research Lab, University of Washington. Reading Commentary Chapter 3 Scenario Planning UW Urban Ecology Research Lab Why Scenarios? What is Scenario Planning? How to Develop Scenarios Dealing with Uncertainty The Benefits and Limitations of Scenarios Chapter 4 Scenario Methodology Process Participating Experts Interviews Workshop Synthesis Scenario Development Focal Issue Driving Forces Uncertainty and Importance Scenario Logics Scenario Narratives The Four Elements used to Synthesize the Final Scenarios Key Drivers Supporting Trajectories Storylines System State Chapter 5 Driving Forces Overview Scenario Assignment: Cost-Benefit Analysis Role-Play Exercise Assignment: Negotiating Societal Risk Assessment End of Unit III Written Assignment:  Environmental Assessment First Example Response to Assignment: Strengths, Weaknesses and Policy Implications of Environmental Analysis Tools Second Example Response to Assignment: Environmental Management Can Be Enhanced through Analytical Tools Unit IV Collective Action to Solve Environmental Problems Introduction Commentaries and Reading Excerpts Lawrence Susskind and Jeffrey Cruikshank — “Convening,” “Assigning Roles and Responsibilities,” “Facilitating Group Problem Solving,” “Reaching Agreement” and “Holding Parties to Their Commitments.” In Breaking Robert’s Rules. Oxford: Oxford University Pr Reading Commentary Step 1 Convening 1.1 Initiate Discussion with Potential Organizer(s) 1.2 Initiate an Assessment 1.3 Use the Assessment to Identify Appropriate Stakeholder Representatives 1.4 Finalize Commitments to Involve Appropriate Stakeholder Representatives if a Consensus-​Building Process goes Forward 1.5 Decide Whether to Commit to CBA 1.6 Make Sure that those in Positions of Authority Agree to the Process Step 2 Assigning Roles and Responsibilities 2.1 Specify Who will take Responsibility for Convening, Facilitating, Recording, Moderating or Chairing Meetings, Representing Key Stakeholder Groups, and Providing Expert Advice 2.2 Set Rules Regarding the Involvement of Alternates and Observers 2.3 Finalize the Agenda, Ground Rules, Work Plan, and Budget in Written Form (For Public or Organizational Review) 2.4 Assess Options for Communicating with the Constituencies Represented as Well as with the Community-​at-Large Step 3 Facilitating Group Problem Solving 3.1 Strive for Transparency (Distribute Written Summaries of all Meetings) 3.2 Seek Expert Input when Joint Fact-Finding Might be Helpful 3.3 Create Working Subcommittees if Appropriate 3.4 Seek to Maximize Joint Gains Through the Brainstorming of Packages 3.5 Separate Inventing from Committing 3.6 Use the Help of a Skilled Facilitator 3.7 Use a Single-​Text Procedure 3.8 Modify the Agenda, Ground Rules, and Deadlines as You Go Step 4 Reaching Agreement 4.1 Seek Unanimity on a Written Package of Commitments 4.2 Use Contingent Commitments, if Appropriate, to Deal with Uncertainty or Risk 4.3 Adhere to Agreed-​Upon Decision-​Making Procedures 4.3.1 Ask Who Can’t Live with the Package 4.3.2 Ask those who object to suggest improvements That Would Make the Package Acceptable to Them Without Making it Unacceptable to Others 4.4 Keep a Written Record of All Agreements 4.5 Maintain Communication with All Relevant Constituents and the Community-​At-​Large Step 5 Holding Parties to Their Commitments 5.1 Seek Ratification of the Draft Agreement by Checking Back with All Relevant Constituencies 5.2 At a Final Meeting, Ask All the Stakeholder Representatives to Indicate Their Personal Support for the Package by Signing the Agreement 5.3 Present the Recommended Package of Proposals to Those With the Formal Authority to Act 5.3.1 Look for Ways to Make Informally Negotiated Agreements Binding 5.4 Reconvene the Parties it Those in Authority Can Not Live with the Package to See What Changes Might be Possible 5.5 Monitor Changing Circumstances During Implementation and Reconvene if Necessary Ian Shapiro —​ “Aggregation, Deliberation, and the Common Good.” In State of Democratic Theory. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Reading Commentary Chapter 1 Aggregation, Deliberation, and the Common Good 1.1 Aggregative Conceptions of the Common Good 1.1.1 Democracy’s Alleged Irrationality 1.1.2 Competing Views of Rational Collective Decision 1.1.3 The Likelihood of Cycles 1.1.4 Privileging Unanimity Rule 1.1.5 The Likelihood of Majority Tyranny 1.2 Deliberative Conceptions of the Common Good 1.2.1 Reciprocal Deliberation as the Common Good 1.2.2 Deliberation and Conflicting Interests 1.2.3 The Context of Deliberation 1.3 Deliberation in Ideal Settings? Notes Mark Sagoff —​ “At the Shrine of Lady Fatima; Why Political Questions Are Not All Economic.” In The Economy of the Earth: Philosophy, Law, and the Environment. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reading Commentary Chapter 2 At the Shrine of Our Lady of Fatima; or, Why political questions are not all economic What We Want Versus What We Are What Is Cost-​Benefit Analysis? Two Conceptions of Externalities Efficiency and Equality Values as Wants Two Conceptions of Neutrality Notes Lawrence Susskind and Connie Ozawa —​ “Mediated Negotiation in the Public Sector: The Planner as Mediator.” Journal of Planning Education and Research. Reading Commentary Mediated Negotiation in the Public Sector: The Planner as Mediator Introduction Some Illustrative Cases The Columbus Negotiated Investment Strategy (NIS) Brayton Point Coal Conversion Foothills Water Treatment Project A New Conception of the Planner’s Role Finding an Appropriate Model Labor Relations International Relations Community Dispute Resolution Environmental Dispute Resolution Concluding Observations References Eugene A. Rosa, Ortwin Renn and Aaron McCright —​ “Risk Governance: A Synthesis.” In Risk Society Revisited: Social Theory and Governance. Philadelphia: Temple University Press. Reading Commentary Chapter 9 Risk Governance a Synthesis Beyond Government: The Need for Comprehensive Governance From Government to Governance From Simple to Systemic Risks Lessons for Risk Governance Pre-​Estimation Interdisciplinary Risk Estimation Risk Evaluation Risk Management Risk Communication and Participation Conclusion Notes Garrett Hardin —​ “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Science Journal Reading Commentary The Tragedy of the Commons What Shall We Maximize? Tragedy of Freedom in a Commons Pollution How to Legislate Temperance? Freedom to Breed is Intolerable Conscience is Self-​Eliminating Pathogenic Effects of Conscience Mutual Coercion Mutually Agreed Upon Recognition of Necessity Note References Elinor Ostrom —​ “Reflections on the Commons.” In Governing the Commons. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Reading Commentary Chapter 1 Reflections on the Commons Three Influential Models The Tragedy of the Commons The Prisoner’s Dilemma Game The Metaphorical Use of Models Current Policy Prescriptions A Challenge Notes Scenario Assignment: Public Participation Strategies Scenario Assignment: Regional Consensus Building Scenario Assignment: Environmental Dispute Resolution End of Unit IV Written Assignment:  Public Interest and Group Decision-​Making First Example Response to Assignment: Public Interest and the Consensus Building Approach Second Example Response to Assignment: Democracy and Environmental Decision-​Making Final Exam Questions Sample Responses to Select Exam Questions Conclusions End Matter Biographies References Index