دانلود کتاب Environmental toxicants: human exposures and their health effects

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COVER......Page 1
TITLE PAGE......Page 5
COPYRIGHT PAGE......Page 6
CONTENTS......Page 7
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 15
PREFACE......Page 19
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND......Page 23
1.1.2 Air Contaminants......Page 24
1.1.3 Particle Characteristics......Page 25
1.1.4 Water Contaminants......Page 28
1.2 HUMAN EXPOSURES AND DOSIMETRY......Page 29
1.3 CHEMICAL EXPOSURES AND DOSE TO TARGET TISSUES......Page 30
1.4 CONCENTRATION OF TOXIC CHEMICALS IN HUMAN MICROENVIRONMENTS......Page 31
1.4.3 Workplace......Page 32
1.4.4 Residential......Page 33
1.4.7 Recreation and Public Spaces......Page 34
1.5.1 Deposition and Absorption......Page 35
1.5.2 Translocation and Retention......Page 40
1.6 INGESTION EXPOSURES AND GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT EFFECTS......Page 41
1.7 SKIN EXPOSURE AND DERMAL EFFECTS......Page 42
1.8 ABSORPTION THROUGH MEMBRANES AND SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION......Page 43
1.9 ACCUMULATION IN TARGET TISSUES AND DOSIMETRIC MODELS......Page 44
1.10.1 Concentrations in Air, Water, and Food......Page 45
1.11.1 Definitions of Health......Page 46
1.11.2 Adverse Health Effects......Page 47
1.12 EXPOSURE–RESPONSE RELATIONSHIPS......Page 48
1.12.1 Summary of Exposure- and Dose-Related Responses......Page 50
1.12.2 Genomic Approaches to Understanding Gene–Lifestyle–Environmental Factors in Complex Disease Pathogenesis......Page 53
1.13.1 Controlled Human Exposures......Page 54
1.13.2 Natural Human Exposures......Page 56
1.13.3 Population-Based Studies of Chronic Health Effects of Air Pollution......Page 57
1.13.5 Controlled Exposures In Vitro......Page 58
REFERENCES......Page 59
Preface......Page 63
2.1.1 Probability of Effect......Page 64
2.1.2 Severity of Effect......Page 65
2.1.3 Psychosocial and Cultural Factors Influencing the Perception of Risk......Page 66
2.2.1 Hazard Identification......Page 68
2.2.2 Dose–Response Analysis......Page 69
2.2.3 Exposure Assessment......Page 70
2.2.4 Risk Characterization......Page 71
2.3.1 Bridging Different Cultures......Page 73
2.3.3 Placing Risks in Proper Perspective......Page 75
2.4 RISK REDUCTION......Page 76
2.4.1 Options for Risk Reduction at the Individual and Community Levels......Page 78
REFERENCES......Page 80
3.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 87
3.2.1 Overview......Page 88
3.2.3 Risk Management from an Environmental Engineering Perspective......Page 89
3.3.1 Overview......Page 92
3.3.2 Superfund......Page 95
3.3.3 Risk‐Based Corrective Action......Page 98
3.4 HISTORIC BACKGROUND......Page 100
3.4.4 Sorption/Desorption Kinetics......Page 101
3.4.6 Partition Coefficients......Page 103
3.5 INTEGRATED ASSESSMENTS......Page 104
REFERENCES......Page 105
CHAPTER 4 CLINICAL PERSPECTIVE ON RESPIRATORY TOXICOLOGY......Page 109
4.1 CONCEPTS OF EXPOSURE......Page 110
4.2.1 Overview......Page 112
4.2.2 Clinical Approaches......Page 114
4.2.3 Imaging Studies......Page 116
4.2.4 Pulmonary Function Testing......Page 118
4.2.5 Special Laboratory Investigations......Page 120
4.2.6 Exposure Assessments......Page 122
4.3.1 Overview......Page 123
4.3.2 Epidemiological Approaches......Page 125
4.3.3 Exposure Assessment......Page 128
4.3.4 Outcome Assessment......Page 129
4.4 CARDIOVASCULAR RESPONSES......Page 130
4.5 LIMITATIONS OF CLINICAL AND EPIDEMIOLOGICAL ASSESSMENTS OF THE EFFECTS OF INHALED AGENTS......Page 132
4.7 NOVEL EXPOSURES......Page 133
4.8.1 Patient Oriented......Page 134
4.8.2 Community Oriented......Page 136
4.9 SUMMARY......Page 137
REFERENCES......Page 138
5.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 149
5.2 THE LIFE CYCLE OF A CHEMICAL: MANY POINTS FOR POSSIBLE INTERVENTION......Page 150
5.3 THE KNOWLEDGE BASE FOR THE IDENTIFICATION OF HAZARD AND HEALTH PROTECTION CONTROL STRATEGIES......Page 151
5.4.1 Exposure Estimation......Page 153
5.4.2 Biomonitoring......Page 155
5.4.3 Toxicity Testing and Data Evaluation......Page 157
5.5 PRODUCT STEWARDSHIP......Page 160
5.6 RESPONSIBLE CARE......Page 164
REFERENCES......Page 167
6.1.1 Composition of Food......Page 171
6.1.2 The Problem of Understanding Food-Related Health Risks......Page 172
6.2 LEGAL AND REGULATORY FRAMEWORK IN THE UNITED STATES......Page 174
6.3.1 The Acceptable Daily Intake and Other Safety Criteria......Page 177
6.3.2 Toxicity Testing for Additives......Page 178
6.3.4 Carcinogens and the Use of Risk Assessment......Page 180
6.3.6 Mode-of-Action Considerations......Page 182
6.3.7 Human Exposure Assessment......Page 183
6.3.8 Risk‐Based Decision Models......Page 184
6.4 NUTRIENTS......Page 185
6.5 SUBSTANCES INTENTIONALLY INTRODUCED INTO FOOD......Page 186
6.5.1 GRAS Substances......Page 187
6.5.2 Direct and Indirect Food Additives......Page 188
6.5.3 Food Contact Materials......Page 189
6.5.4 Color Additives......Page 191
6.5.5 Animal Drug Residues......Page 192
6.6.2 Inorganic Contaminants......Page 193
6.6.3 Organic Contaminants of Industrial Origin......Page 197
6.6.4 Risk Assessment and Management......Page 200
6.7.2 Intrinsic Components of Foods......Page 201
6.7.3 Naturally Occurring Pesticides......Page 206
6.7.4 Accumulation of Chemicals from Drinking Water and Soils: Nitrate......Page 207
6.7.5 Mycotoxins......Page 208
6.7.6 Phycotoxins......Page 209
6.8 COMPOUNDS PRODUCED DURING FOOD STORAGE AND PREPARATION......Page 211
6.9 DIETARY SUPPLEMENTS......Page 213
6.10 FOOD SAFETY INSTITUTIONS AROUND THE WORLD......Page 214
6.11 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION......Page 215
ACRONYMS......Page 216
REFERENCES......Page 217
7.1 BACKGROUND......Page 227
7.1.1 Human Environmental Exposure......Page 228
7.2.1 Acrolein’s Mode of Action......Page 234
7.2.2 Acrolein Use In Vitro......Page 249
7.2.3 Acrolein Concentration In Vivo and Metabolism......Page 250
7.3.1 Accidental Acrolein Exposure......Page 252
7.3.4 Oral Exposure......Page 253
7.3.5 Acute Inhalation Exposure and Immune Responses......Page 254
7.4.1 Acrolein’s Role in Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)......Page 257
7.4.2 Acrolein’s Role in Asthma......Page 258
7.4.3 Acrolein’s Role in Neurologic Disorders......Page 259
7.4.4 Acrolein’s Role in Renal Failure......Page 260
7.5 CONCLUSION......Page 261
REFERENCES......Page 262
8.1 OVERVIEW......Page 283
8.2 NERVE AGENTS......Page 284
8.3 RESPIRATORY TOXICANTS......Page 287
8.4 VESICANTS......Page 288
8.5 RODENTICIDES......Page 293
8.6 ARSENICALS......Page 295
8.7 METABOLIC POISONS......Page 296
REFERENCES......Page 297
9.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 307
9.2 BACKGROUND......Page 308
9.3 SOURCES AND PATHWAYS FOR HUMAN EXPOSURE......Page 312
9.4.2 Non-gravimetric PM Mass Concentration Estimation......Page 313
9.5 POPULATION EXPOSURES TO AMBIENT AIR PM......Page 314
9.6.1 Mortality Associated with Coal Smoke (When Measured as BS)......Page 315
9.6.3 Mortality and Morbidity Associated with Other Historic PM Indices......Page 320
9.7 HEALTH EFFECTS OF SPECIFIC PM COMPONENTS......Page 323
9.7.1 Studies Based on PM2.5 and/or PM10–2.5......Page 326
9.7.2 Aerosol Optical Density (AOD) as an Index of PM2.5 over Large Spatial Regions......Page 328
9.7.3 Daily Mortality Effects in Adults......Page 329
9.7.5 Effects on Daily Hospital Admissions......Page 330
9.8.1 Studies Relying on SO4= and PM2.5......Page 334
9.8.5 Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis......Page 338
9.8.6 Annual Human Mortality......Page 339
9.9.1 Preterm Birth and Low Birth Weight......Page 343
9.10.1 Cardiovascular Responses......Page 345
9.11 CONTROLLED SHORT-TERM HUMAN INHALATION EXPOSURE STUDIES......Page 347
9.12.1 Boston......Page 348
9.12.2 New York City......Page 349
9.12.3 Tuxedo, NY......Page 350
9.12.4 Columbus, OH......Page 353
9.13 EFFECTS OF PM SOURCE MIXTURE INHALATION EXPOSURES IN LABORATORY ANIMALS......Page 354
9.13.1 Diesel Engine Exhaust......Page 355
9.13.2 Motor Vehicle Engine Exhaust (MVE) and Other Ambient Air Components......Page 356
9.14.2 Cardiac Function Responses to CAPs in the NYU NPACT Study......Page 357
9.14.3 Aortic Plaque Progression in the NYU NPACT Study......Page 358
9.15 CONSISTENCY, COHERENCE, AND IMPLICATIONS TO PUBLIC HEALTH......Page 359
9.16 MOST INFLUENTIAL PM2.5 COMPONENTS AS CAUSAL FACTORS......Page 360
9.17 DAILY MORBIDITY EFFECTS AND COHERENCE WITH EXCESS DAILY MORTALITY......Page 361
9.18 EFFECTS OF PM2.5 COMPONENTS IN TOXICOLOGICAL STUDIES......Page 364
9.19 THE ROLES OF PM2.5 COMPONENTS ON HEALTH‐RELATED RESPONSES......Page 365
9.21 COHERENCE OF NPACT STUDY OF CVD EFFECTS IN PEOPLE AND IN MICE......Page 366
9.23 TRAFFIC AND SO4= IN THE NPACT STUDIES......Page 367
9.24 HOLISTIC PERSPECTIVES ON THE ROLE OF PM2.5 IN CVD EFFECTS......Page 368
9.25.1 Short-Term NAAQS for PM2.5......Page 370
9.25.3 Consideration of a NAAQS for Coarse Thoracic PM (PM10–2.5) and/or UFP......Page 372
9.27 NEED FOR A MORE COMPREHENSIVE AIR QUALITY MONITORING PROGRAM......Page 373
9.28 CONCLUSIONS......Page 374
REFERENCES......Page 375
10.1.1 Historical Overview of Arsenic (As) and Arsenical Exposures......Page 389
10.1.2 Sources and Physical and Chemical Properties of Environmental As and Its Compounds......Page 391
10.1.3 Pathways and Extent of Human As Exposure......Page 392
10.2 KINETICS OF AS UPTAKE, DISTRIBUTION, AND ELIMINATION......Page 395
10.3.1 Mechanisms of Toxicity......Page 397
10.4 EVIDENCE OF HUMAN DISEASES CAUSED BY ARSENIC......Page 399
REFERENCES......Page 402
11.1.1 Important Special Properties Of Mineral And Vitreous Fibers......Page 411
11.2.1 Exposure Indices......Page 415
11.2.2 Airborne Exposure Levels......Page 416
11.3 FIBER DEPOSITION IN THE RESPIRATORY TRACT......Page 417
11.4 FIBER RETENTION, TRANSLOCATION, DISINTEGRATION, AND DISSOLUTION......Page 419
11.4.2 Biopersistence......Page 420
11.5 FIBER-RELATED DISEASES/PROCESSES......Page 425
11.6.2 In Vivo Exposures in Animals via Intraperitoneal Injection......Page 427
11.6.3 In Vivo Exposures of Animals to Fibers by Inhalation......Page 428
11.7.1 Critical Fiber Dimensions for Asbestosis......Page 429
11.7.2 Critical Fiber Dimensions for Mesothelioma......Page 432
11.7.3 Critical Fiber Dimension for Lung Cancer......Page 433
11.7.4 Summary of Critical Fiber Parameters......Page 436
11.7.5 Implications of Critical Fiber Parameters to Health Relevant Indices of Exposure......Page 437
11.8.1 Asbestosis......Page 438
11.8.3 Human Asbestos Exposure–Cancer Response......Page 439
11.8.4 Mesothelioma and the Amphibole Hypothesis......Page 441
11.9.1 Lung Cancer......Page 443
11.9.2 Respiratory Morbidity......Page 445
11.10 SUMMARY OF HUMAN RESPONSES TO LONG-TERM FIBER INHALATION EXPOSURES......Page 446
11.10.2 Carcinogenesis Responses......Page 447
11.11 SUMMARY OF PULMONARY AND PLEURAL RESPONSES IN ANIMALS......Page 448
11.11.1 Coherence of the Human and Animal Response Data with Known Characteristics of Fiber Type and Dimensional Distributions......Page 450
11.13.1 Dose Response for Mesothelioma......Page 452
11.13.3 Dose Response for Amphiboles......Page 453
11.13.4 Risks Associated with Nonoccupational Exposures......Page 454
11.14 RISK ASSESSMENT ISSUES—SVFs......Page 456
11.15.3 Influence of Fiber Length......Page 458
11.15.5 Risk Assessment for Inorganic Fibers......Page 459
11.16 DISCUSSION......Page 460
11.17 CONCLUSIONS......Page 461
ACRONYMS......Page 462
REFERENCES......Page 463
12.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 477
12.2 CO EXPOSURE AND DOSIMETRY......Page 478
12.3 MECHANISMS OF CO TOXICITY......Page 480
12.4.2 People with Anemia and Other Blood Disorders......Page 481
12.6 HISTORICAL REGULATORY BACKGROUND......Page 482
12.7.1 Population-Based Studies......Page 483
12.8.1 Controlled Human Studies......Page 487
12.9 NEUROTOXICOLOGICAL AND BEHAVIORAL EFFECTS......Page 492
12.10 FETAL DEVELOPMENTAL AND PERINATAL EFFECTS......Page 493
12.12 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 494
REFERENCES......Page 496
13.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 509
13.2.1 Chromium Sources......Page 510
13.2.2 Environmental Exposure......Page 511
13.2.4 Exposure Guidelines......Page 513
13.3.1 Absorption......Page 514
13.3.3 Reduction......Page 515
13.4.1 Non-cancerous Adverse Health Effects......Page 516
13.4.2 Carcinogenicity......Page 520
13.5.1 Oxidative Stress......Page 522
13.5.2 Genotoxicity and Genome Instability......Page 523
13.5.3 Epigenetic Modulation......Page 524
REFERENCES......Page 525
14.1 HISTORICAL OVERVIEW......Page 537
14.2 COMPOSITION OF DIESEL ENGINE EXHAUST......Page 539
14.2.1 Composition of the Diesel PM (DPM)......Page 540
14.2.3 Exhaust Aftertreatment......Page 541
14.3 ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURES TO DIESEL EXHAUST......Page 542
14.4 CANCER......Page 543
14.4.1 Epidemiological Evidence for Lung Cancer Risk......Page 544
14.4.2 U.S. Miners’ Study......Page 547
14.4.4 U.S. Railroad Worker Case–Control and Cohort Studies......Page 548
14.5 CONCLUSIONS......Page 550
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 551
REFERENCES......Page 552
15.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 557
15.2.1 Nuclear Receptor Signaling......Page 558
15.2.2 Low‐Dose and Non-monotonic Dose Effects......Page 561
15.2.4 Epigenetic Programming......Page 562
15.3.1 Male Reproduction and Development......Page 564
15.3.2 Female Reproduction and Development......Page 566
15.3.3 Metabolic Disorders......Page 567
15.3.4 Preconception and Transgenerational Effects......Page 568
15.4 CONCLUSION......Page 569
REFERENCES......Page 570
16.1.1 Human Environmental Exposure......Page 577
16.1.2 Cellular Exposure and Dosimetry......Page 583
16.1.3 Populations of Concern......Page 588
16.2.1 Formaldehyde......Page 592
16.2.2 Other Aldehydes......Page 600
16.3.1 Formaldehyde......Page 602
16.3.2 Repeated Exposure to Other Aldehydes......Page 617
REFERENCES......Page 619
17.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 649
17.2 PHYSICAL/CHEMICAL PROPERTIES AND BEHAVIOR OF Pb AND ITS COMPOUNDS......Page 650
17.3 LEAD IN THE ENVIRONMENT AND HUMAN EXPOSURE......Page 653
17.4.1 Gastrointestinal (GI) Pb Absorption......Page 656
17.4.2 Effects of Age on Lead Absorption......Page 657
17.4.3 Influence of Nutritional Status and Dietary Factors on Lead Absorption......Page 658
17.4.4 Absorption Following Inhalation......Page 660
17.5 DISTRIBUTION......Page 661
17.5.1 Excretion......Page 662
17.6 KINETICS......Page 664
17.7 BIOMARKERS......Page 670
17.8 HEALTH EFFECTS......Page 673
17.8.1 Neurotoxic Effects of Lead......Page 674
17.8.2 Other Effects......Page 678
17.9 MECHANISMS UNDERLYING LEAD TOXICITY......Page 680
17.10 TREATMENT OF LEAD TOXICITY......Page 683
REFERENCES......Page 685
18.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 699
18.3 SOURCES......Page 700
18.4.1 Air......Page 701
18.4.2 Diet (Drinking Water and Food)......Page 702
18.4.3 Relative Significance of Different Routes of Environmental Exposure......Page 703
18.6.1 Hg0......Page 704
18.7.2 HgII Species......Page 705
18.8.2 Hg+ and HgII......Page 706
18.9.2 Chronic and Systemic Effects......Page 707
18.10 PREVENTION......Page 710
REFERENCES......Page 711
19.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 717
19.2 NANOPARTICLES: SCOPE AND TOXICITY......Page 718
19.3 LESSONS LEARNED......Page 719
19.5 RELEVANT EXPOSURE SCENARIO......Page 720
19.6 NP EXPOSURE......Page 721
19.7 CARDIOVASCULAR EFFECTS FOLLOWING PULMONARY NP EXPOSURE......Page 722
19.8.1 Fullerenes......Page 723
19.8.2 Carbon Nanotubes......Page 725
19.8.4 Metallic and Metal Oxide NPs......Page 728
19.8.6 Zinc......Page 729
19.8.8 Silver......Page 730
19.9 CASE STUDY: SUBCHRONIC EFFECTS OF INHALED NICKEL NANOPARTICLES ON THE PROGRESSION OF ATHEROSCLEROSIS IN A HYPERLIPIDEMIC MOUSE MODEL......Page 731
19.12 SUMMARY......Page 732
REFERENCES......Page 733
20.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 743
20.2 SOURCES OF NOx......Page 745
20.3.1 Dosimetry......Page 747
20.3.2 Health Effects: Epidemiology......Page 748
20.3.3 Health Effects: Toxicology and Controlled Human Exposoures......Page 760
20.3.4 Health Effects of NO2: Summary and Conclusions......Page 773
20.4.1 Exposure......Page 775
20.4.2 Dosimetry and Toxicology......Page 776
20.5.2 Dosimetry and Toxicology......Page 778
20.6 INORGANIC NITRATES......Page 779
20.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 781
REFERENCES......Page 783
21.1.1 Historical Overview of Ozone as a Component of Ambient Air and a Marker for the Photochemical Air Pollution Standard......Page 805
21.2.1 Sources and Distribution of O3 in Ambient Air......Page 809
21.2.2 Ozone Exposures and Dosimetry......Page 810
21.2.3 Populations of Concern for Health Effects......Page 811
21.3.1 Respiratory Mechanical Function Responses......Page 812
21.3.2 Effects on Athletic Performance......Page 818
21.3.3 Cardiovascular and Nervous System Function Responses......Page 819
21.3.4 Symptomatic Responses......Page 820
21.3.6 Effects on Airway Permeability......Page 822
21.3.7 Effects on Airway Inflammation......Page 823
21.3.8 Effects on Particle Clearance......Page 826
21.4 FACTORS AFFECTING RESPONSIVENESS IN HUMANS......Page 827
21.5 MECHANISTIC STUDIES IN LABORATORY ANIMALS......Page 829
21.6.1 Mortality......Page 830
21.6.2 Morbidity......Page 833
21.7.3 Effects on Airway Permeability......Page 838
21.7.5 Determinants of Responsiveness......Page 839
21.7.7 Time Scale for Biological Integration of Effects of Single O3 Exposures......Page 841
21.7.8 Effects of Single and Multiday Exposures on Lung Infectivity......Page 842
21.8 EFFECTS OF OTHER POLLUTANTS ON RESPONSES TO OZONE......Page 843
21.9 EFFECTS OF MULTIDAY AND AMBIENT EPISODE EXPOSURES......Page 846
21.10 CUMULATIVE EFFECTS OF AMBIENT OZONE EXPOSURES......Page 848
21.10.2 Epidemiological Studies of Cumulative Effects of Chronic Exposures......Page 849
21.11 Controlled Laboratory Exposure Studies: Animal Responses......Page 851
21.12 STANDARDS AND EXPOSURE GUIDELINES......Page 855
21.13 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS......Page 857
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS......Page 859
REFERENCES......Page 860
22.1 USES OF PESTICIDES......Page 877
22.2 HISTORY OF PESTICIDES......Page 878
22.3 EXPOSURE TO PESTICIDES......Page 879
22.4 ACUTE POISONING WITH PESTICIDES......Page 880
22.5 TOXICITY OF PESTICIDES......Page 881
22.5.1 Insecticides......Page 882
22.5.2 Insect Repellents......Page 884
22.5.3 Herbicides......Page 885
22.5.4 Fungicides......Page 886
22.5.5 Rodenticides......Page 887
22.5.6 Fumigants......Page 888
22.6 PESTICIDES AS ENDOCRINE DISRUPTORS......Page 889
22.8 LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK......Page 890
REFERENCES......Page 892
23.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 899
23.2 HISTORY OF RADON AND DECAY PRODUCT MEASUREMENT......Page 902
23.3 INDOOR MEASUREMENTS OF 222Rn......Page 903
23.4 OUTDOOR MEASUREMENTS OF 222Rn......Page 904
23.5 MEASUREMENT OF 222Rn DECAY PRODUCTS......Page 906
23.6 GROUNDWATER AS A SOURCE OF INDOOR 222Rn......Page 907
23.7.1 Indoor Measurement......Page 909
23.8 RADON EPIDEMIOLOGY IN UNDERGROUND MINES AND LUNG CANCER RISK......Page 910
23.9 RESIDENTIAL RADON EPIDEMIOLOGY LUNG CANCER MODELS AND LUNG CANCER RISK......Page 912
23.10.1 222Rn (Radon) Bronchial Dosimetry......Page 914
23.10.2 220Rn (Radon) Dosimetry......Page 918
23.11 REGULATIONS AND GUIDELINES FOR 222Rn EXPOSURE......Page 919
23.12 RADON AND SMOKING......Page 920
23.13 CHILDHOOD 222Rn EXPOSURE......Page 921
23.14 OTHER NATURAL BACKGROUND EXPOSURE......Page 924
GLOSSARY......Page 925
REFERENCES......Page 927
24.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 933
24.2.2 Secondhand Smoke Concentrations......Page 934
24.2.3 Thirdhand Smoke Exposure......Page 936
24.2.4 Biological Markers of Exposure......Page 937
24.2.5 Exposure Assessment......Page 938
24.3.1 Health Effects in Children......Page 939
24.3.2 Health Effects in Adults......Page 941
24.4 CONTROL OF EXPOSURE TO SECONDHAND SMOKE......Page 943
24.5 SUMMARY......Page 944
REFERENCES......Page 945
25.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 949
25.2.1 Sources......Page 950
25.2.2 Exposures......Page 951
25.3.1 Short-Term Bronchoconstrictive Effects in Humans......Page 954
25.3.3 Short-Term Effects in Multi-pollutant Epidemiology......Page 956
25.3.4 Short-Term Mortality in Multi-pollutant Studies......Page 957
25.3.5 Short-Term Morbidity in Multi-pollutant Studies......Page 960
25.4.1 Population-Based Studies......Page 961
25.4.2 Panel Studies......Page 962
25.4.3 Studies of Cohorts of Children......Page 963
25.5.1 Deposition, Growth, and Neutralization Within the Respiratory Tract......Page 964
25.5.2 Effects on Experimental Animals......Page 965
25.5.3 Effects on Humans......Page 968
25.5.4 Implications: Exacerbation of Asthma and Chronic Bronchitis......Page 975
25.5.5 Implications: Mucociliary Clearance in the Pathogenesis of Chronic Bronchitis......Page 976
25.5.6 Implications: Airborne Acidity and Cancer......Page 980
25.5.7 Summary of Health Effects of Acidic Aerosols......Page 981
25.7.1 Short-Term Exposures......Page 982
25.8 OVERALL DISCUSSION......Page 983
REFERENCES......Page 984
26.1 INTRODUCTION......Page 995
26.2.1 Temporal Sequence......Page 996
26.2.2 What Was Measured......Page 997
26.2.4 Lead (Pb), Chromium (Cr), Nickel (Ni), and Other Metals......Page 998
26.2.7 Asbestos Fibers......Page 999
26.3 POTENTIAL DOSIMETRY OF WTC DUSTS......Page 1000
26.3.2 Impact of Oral Versus Nasal Inhalation on Dosimetry......Page 1001
26.4.1 Introduction......Page 1002
26.4.2 Occupational Groups Exposed to WTC Dust with Clinical Examinations......Page 1003
26.4.3 Firefighters/Emergency Medical Technicians......Page 1005
26.5.1 Summary of Responses to WTC Dust Exposures in Monitored Populations......Page 1008
26.5.2 In Vivo Studies......Page 1009
26.5.3 In Vitro Studies of Potential Biological Mechanisms......Page 1011
26.6 POSSIBLE ROLES OF MINOR MASS COMPONENTS AS CAUSAL FACTORS FOR OBSERVED HEALTH EFFECTS......Page 1013
26.7 ROLES OF MAJOR MASS COMPONENTS AS POTENTIAL CAUSAL FACTORS FOR OBSERVED HEALTH EFFECTS......Page 1014
26.8 CONCLUSIONS......Page 1015
REFERENCES......Page 1017
INDEX......Page 1021
EULA......Page 1027