دانلود کتاب Food Emulsions (Food Science and Technology)

فهرست مطالب :

food emulsions......Page 1
FOOD EMULSIONS FOURTH EDITION, REVISED AND EXPANDED......Page 2
PREFACE TO THE FOURTH EDITION......Page 11
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION......Page 13
CONTRIBUTORS......Page 16
CONTENTS......Page 14
A. GENERAL INTRODUCTION......Page 18
CONTENTS......Page 0
B. EMULSION TYPES......Page 19
A. GENERAL ASPECTS OF EMULSIONS......Page 21
B. LIPIDS AND EMULSION FUNCTIONALITY......Page 22
C. THE INTERFACIAL LAYER......Page 23
D. THE CONTINUOUS PHASE......Page 26
B. PROTEINS......Page 28
C. ADSORPTION AND PROTEIN CONFORMATION......Page 29
IV. FORMATION OF EMULSIONS AND MEASUREMENT OF EMULSIFYING ACTIVITY OF PROTEINS......Page 32
V. MEASUREMENT OF PARTICLE SIZES AND SIZE DISTRIBUTIONS IN EMULSIONS......Page 35
B. INTERFACES WITH ADSORBED PROTEINS......Page 40
C. EMULSIONS STABILIZED BY PARTICLES......Page 44
A. INTERFACES CONTAINING MIXTURES OF PROTEINS......Page 46
B. ADDITION OF SMALL-MOLECULE EMULSIFIERS TO A PROTEIN-STABILIZED EMULSION......Page 48
C. CHEMICAL MODIFICATION OF THE INTERFACIAL LAYER......Page 51
VIII. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 53
REFERENCES......Page 54
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 62
A. MONOGLYCERIDES......Page 63
B. ORGANIC ACID ESTERS OF MONOGLYCERIDES......Page 70
D. LACTIC ACID ESTERS (LACTEM)......Page 72
E. DIACETYL TARTARIC ACID ESTERS (DATEM)......Page 73
G. SUCCINIC ACID ESTERS (SMG)......Page 75
H. POLYGLYCEROL ESTERS OF FATTY ACIDS (PGE)......Page 76
J. PROPYLENE GLYCOL ESTERS OF FATTY ACIDS (PGMS)......Page 78
1. SORBITAN ESTERS OF FATTY ACIDS (SMS, STS)......Page 79
2. POLYOXYETHYLENE SORBITAN ESTERS......Page 80
M. LECITHIN......Page 81
III. LYOTROPIC MESOMORPHISM......Page 82
A. LAMELLAR PHASE......Page 84
B. PHASE BEHAVIOR OF MONOGLYCERIDE–WATER SYSTEMS......Page 85
C. DISPERSION STATE AND CRYSTALLINE HYDRATES......Page 89
1. POLYGLYCEROL ESTERS......Page 91
2. ORGANIC ACID ESTERS......Page 92
3. STEAROYL LACTYLATES......Page 93
5. POLYSORBATES......Page 95
E. THE ALFA-CRYSTALLINE GEL STATE......Page 96
G. POLAR LIPID–WATER PHASES OF NATURAL ORIGIN......Page 102
A. EMULSIFICATION AND EMULSION STABILITY......Page 103
C. INTERACTION WITH STARCH COMPONENTS......Page 104
D. DOUGH-STRENGTHENING EFFECTS OF EMULSIFIERS......Page 105
V. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 106
REFERENCES......Page 107
II. THE SOLID STATE......Page 109
B. MOLECULAR ORIENTATION IN LIPID CRYSTALS......Page 110
C. HYDROCARBON CHAIN PACKING......Page 111
E. FATTY ACIDS......Page 113
G. DIGLYCERIDES AND TRIGLYCERIDES......Page 115
III. LIQUID-CRYSTALLINE PHASES......Page 116
B. LAMELLAR LIQUID CRYSTALS......Page 118
D. CUBIC LIQUID-CRYSTALLINE PHASES......Page 119
REFERENCES......Page 121
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 123
II. LIPIDS......Page 125
III. PROTEINS......Page 129
A. IN SOLUTION......Page 132
1. ANIONIC......Page 134
3. CATIONIC......Page 138
4. EFFECT OF SOLUTION CONDITIONS......Page 139
B. AT INTERFACES......Page 141
2. DISPLACEMENT......Page 143
3. INCREASED SURFACE ACTIVITY OF THE LIPID–PROTEIN COMPLEX......Page 147
5. PROTEIN–LIPID INTERACTIONS AT THE INTERFACE......Page 149
V. INTERACTIONS BETWEEN PROTEINS AND WATER-INSOLUBLE LIPIDS......Page 152
1. DRIVING FORCE FOR LIPID–PROTEIN INTERACTIONS......Page 154
2. STRUCTURE OF THE INTERFACIAL FILM......Page 158
3. MONOLAYER STABILITY......Page 160
B. PROTEIN-LIPID INTERACTIONS AT THE OIL–AQUEOUS INTERFACE......Page 162
C. PROTEIN INTERACTIONS WITH LIPID VESICLES......Page 164
1. DRIVING FORCE FOR THE PROTEIN–VESICLE INTERACTION......Page 165
2. INFLUENCE OF THE PROTEIN STRUCTURE ON THE VESICLE INTERACTION......Page 167
D. PROTEIN INTERACTION WITH LIQUID-CRYSTALLINE PHASES/GEL PHASES......Page 168
1. PROTEIN INTERACTIONS THAT INCREASE THE CURVATURE OF THE LIPID–AQUEOUS INTERFACES......Page 170
2. PROTEIN INTERACTIONS THAT DECREASE THE CURVATURE OF THE LIPID–AQUEOUS INTERFACES......Page 172
3. CUBIC LIPID–PROTEIN AQUEOUS PHASES......Page 173
4. LIPASE ACTION ON LIQUID-CRYSTALLINE PHASES......Page 177
REFERENCES......Page 179
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 190
A. KINETIC AND THERMODYNAMIC STABILITY IN MACROEMULSIONS AND MINIEMULSIONS......Page 192
B. CURRENT STATE OF EMULSION STABILITY SCIENCE......Page 193
C. SPECIFICITY OF EMULSION CHARACTERIZATION......Page 194
A. SINGLET–DOUBLET QUASIEQUILIBRIUM......Page 195
B. KINETIC EQUATION FOR COUPLING OF FLOCCULATION AND INTRADOUBLET COALESCENCE IN MONODISPERSE EMULSIONS......Page 197
C. COALESCENCE IN A SINGLET–DOUBLET SYSTEM AT QUASIEQUILIBRIUM......Page 198
D. REDUCED ROLE OF FRAGMENTATION WITH DECREASING C......Page 200
1. VIDEO-ENHANCED MICROSCOPY (MICROSLIDE PREPARATIVE TECHNIQUE) FOR INVESTIGATION OF SINGLET–DOUBLET EQUILIBRIUM AND INTRADOUBLET COALESCENCE (29–31)......Page 201
2. IMPROVING THE EXPERIMENTAL TECHNIQUE WITH THE USE OF LOW-DENSITY CONTRAST EMULSIONS (30)......Page 202
3. MEASUREMENT OF COALESCENCE TIME AND DOUBLET FRAGMENTATION TIME......Page 203
F. PERSPECTIVE FOR GENERALIZATION OF THE THEORY FOR COUPLING OF COALESCENCE AND FLOCCULATION......Page 204
A. GENERAL......Page 205
B. AVERAGE MODELS......Page 206
1. THE MODEL OF BORWANKAR ET AL.......Page 207
C. THE DIGB MODEL FOR SIMULTANEOUS COAGULATION AND COALESCENCE......Page 209
A. THEORY OF DOUBLET FRAGMENTATION TIME......Page 213
B. DOUBLET FRAGMENTATION TIME OF UNCHARGED DROPLETS......Page 214
C. LIFETIME OF A DOUBLET OF CHARGED DROPLETS AND COAGULATION/FLOCCULATION......Page 216
V. COALESCENCE COUPLED WITH EITHER COAGULATION OR FLOCCULATION IN DILUTE EMULSIONS......Page 217
A. FRAGMENTATION OF PRIMARY FLOCS IN EMULSIONS AND THE SUBSEQUENT REDUCTION OF COALESCENCE......Page 218
B. DOMAINS OF COALESCENCE COUPLED EITHER WITH COAGULATION OR WITH FLOCCULATION......Page 220
VI. APPLICATIONS......Page 223
A. LONG-TERM PREDICTION OF EMULSION STABILITY......Page 224
1. COMBINING SURFACTANTS AND POLYMERS IN EMULSION STABILIZATION......Page 225
2. THERE IS A STRONG INFLUENCE OF LOW CONCENTRATIONS OF IONIC SURFACTANT ON DOUBLET FRAGMENTATION TIME AND COALESCENCE TIME......Page 226
1. GENERAL......Page 227
2. COMBINED APPROACH IN INVESTIGATIONS OF DILUTE AND CONCENTRATED EMULSIONS......Page 228
4. THE SIMPLEST EMULSION STATE FOR WHICH INVESTIGATION CAN PROVIDE INFORMATION ABOUT COALESCENCE IS AT SINGLET–DOUBLET QUASIEQUILIBRIUM WITH SLOW COALESCENCE WITHIN THE DOUBLETS......Page 229
VII. SUMMARY......Page 230
REFERENCES......Page 231
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 235
B. MESOPHASE PREPARATION......Page 237
C. BACKLIGHT-SCATTERING EXPERIMENT......Page 239
D. FILM RHEOLOGY AND FILM THICKNESS STABILITY......Page 240
E. FOAM FILM AIR PERMEABILITY......Page 242
F. MEASUREMENT OF OVERRUN AND BUBBLE SIZE......Page 243
G. MEASUREMENT OF GAS DIFFUSION......Page 244
A. FAT PARTICLE STRUCTURE VARIATION DURING HOMOGENIZATION......Page 245
B. FAT PARTICLE STRUCTURE DURING COOLING......Page 246
C. FAT PARTICLE STRUCTURE DURING AGING......Page 248
E. FAT PARTICLE STRUCTURE DURING THE WHIPPING PROCESS......Page 249
F. FILM TENSION, ELASTICITY, AND THICKNESS STABILITY......Page 252
G. FOAM FILM AIR PERMEABILITY......Page 255
H. LONG-TERM STABILITY OF MODEL AERATED FOOD EMULSIONS......Page 257
1. MEASUREMENT OF THE GAS-DIFFUSION RATE......Page 258
2. OSTWALD RIPENING MODEL AND THE GAS-DIFFUSION MODEL......Page 260
3. MODEL PREDICTION......Page 262
4. APPLICATION OF MODEL IN PREDICTING LONG-TERM STABILITY OF AN AERATED EMULSION SYSTEM......Page 264
IV. CONCLUSIONS......Page 266
REFERENCES......Page 267
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 270
II. INTERACTIONS AND HOLE FORMATION......Page 271
A. HYDRODYNAMIC INTERACTIONS......Page 272
A. VAN DER WAALS FORCES......Page 274
B. ELECTROSTATIC DOUBLE-LAYER FORCES......Page 275
D. POLYMER-INDUCED FORCES......Page 276
E. COALESCENCE AND HOLE FORMATION......Page 278
A. INTERFEROMETRIC SURFACE FORCE APPARATUS......Page 281
B. THE BIMORPH SURFACE FORCE APPARATUS......Page 283
C. DERJAGUIN APPROXIMATION......Page 284
D. THIN-FILM PRESSURE BALANCE......Page 285
A. IONIC SURFACTANTS ON HYDROPHOBIC SURFACES......Page 288
B. NONIONIC SURFACTANTS ON HYDROPHOBIC SURFACES......Page 291
C. NONIONIC POLYMERS ON HYDROPHOBIC SURFACES......Page 293
D. POLYELECTROLYTES ON SURFACES......Page 295
E. PROTEINS ON HYDROPHOBIC SURFACES......Page 297
F. PHOSPHOLIPIDS ON POLAR SURFACES IN OIL......Page 300
G. POLYMERS ON POLAR SURFACES IN OIL......Page 301
H. FORCES BETWEEN SURFACES ACROSS EMULSIONS......Page 303
I. FORCES DUE TO STRATIFICATION IN FOAM AND PSEUDOEMULSION FILMS......Page 306
REFERENCES......Page 307
B. ADSORBED PROTEIN LAYERS......Page 311
C. COMPLEXITY OF PROCESSES PRECEDING COALESCENCE IN FOOD EMULSIONS......Page 313
D. AIM OF THIS WORK......Page 314
A. THIN FILMS......Page 315
III. HOMOGENEOUS COALESCENCE......Page 317
1. RUPTURE BY THE PRESENCE OF VACANCIES......Page 318
2. RUPTURE BY SPONTANEOUS PASSAGE FORMATION......Page 319
3. RUPTURE BY FILM STRETCHING......Page 320
1. DROPLET ENCOUNTER UNDER QUIESCENT AND GENTLE-FLOW CONDITIONS......Page 323
2. DROPLET ENCOUNTER IN TURBULENT FLOW......Page 324
IV. SURFACE-INTERMEDIATED COALESCENCE......Page 326
B. COALESCENCE INTERMEDIATED BY A LIQUID INTERFACE......Page 327
C. COALESCENCE BY SHEARING IN CONFINED SPACES......Page 330
D. RUPTURE BY PENETRATION OF PARTICLES......Page 331
REFERENCES......Page 333
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 338
II. THEORETICAL APPROACHES......Page 339
A. SMOLUCHOWSKI THEORY......Page 341
1. PARTICLES ARE SPHERICAL IN SHAPE AFTER COLLISION......Page 342
2. ALL COLLISIONS LEAD TO IMMEDIATE AND COMPLETE COALESCENCE......Page 344
3. THERE IS NO FRACTURE OF PARTICLES OR AGGREGATES......Page 346
5. PARTICLES ARE OF IDENTICAL SIZE......Page 347
C. TRAJECTORY ANALYSIS......Page 348
III. EXPERIMENTS IN FOOD SYSTEMS......Page 352
1. EMULSIONS CONTAINING LIQUID DROPLETS......Page 353
2. EMULSIONS CONTAINING SEMICRYSTALLINE DROPLETS......Page 355
B. TWO-PARTICLE AGGREGATION UNDER SHEAR......Page 356
IV. CONCLUSIONS......Page 357
REFERENCES......Page 358
I. OPENING REMARKS......Page 363
II. INTRODUCTION......Page 364
III. PREPARATION ROUTES: THE EMULSIFIERS......Page 365
IV. THE OIL PHASE......Page 371
V. STABILITY CONSIDERATIONS......Page 372
VI. RELEASE CONSIDERATIONS......Page 376
VII. STABILIZATION BY MACROMOLECULAR AMPHIPHILES......Page 378
A. PROTEIN–POLYSACCHARIDE INTERACTIONS IN AQUEOUS MEDIUM......Page 381
B. PROTEIN–POLYSACCHARIDE INTERACTIONS IN EMULSION......Page 382
C. DOUBLE EMULSION STABILIZED WITH PROTEIN–POLYSACCHARIDE HYBRIDS......Page 388
1. RHEOLOGY......Page 389
2. EFFECT OF PH ON DOUBLE-EMULSION STABILITY......Page 391
3. ENTRAPMENT IN DOUBLE EMULSIONS (VITAMIN B1)......Page 392
IX. STABILIZATION BY SOLID PARTICLES......Page 393
X. STABILIZATION BY INCREASED VISCOSITY......Page 396
XI. MICROCAPSULES OR MICROSPHERES IN THE INTERNAL PHASE......Page 398
A. CONTROLLED DELIVERY APPLICATIONS......Page 399
B. DOUBLE-EMULSIONS SOLVENT-EXTRACTION TECHNIQUES FOR PREPARATION OF MICROSPHERES......Page 400
XIII. O/W/O DOUBLE EMULSIONS......Page 403
XIV. MULTIPLE-EMULSION RHEOLOGY......Page 405
XV. CONCLUDING REMARKS......Page 412
REFERENCES......Page 413
I. BACKGROUND......Page 423
II. INTRODUCTION......Page 424
III. STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS......Page 427
A. MONODISPERSE, PERFECTLY ORDERED 2D SYSTEM......Page 430
B. POLYDISPERSE 2D SYSTEMS......Page 436
C. MONODISPERSE 3D SYSTEMS......Page 438
D. POLYDISPERSE 3D SYSTEMS......Page 443
B. VAPOR PRESSURES OF CONTINUOUS AND DISPERSED PHASES......Page 445
C. GRADIENT IN / IN GRAVITATIONAL FIELD......Page 446
D. EXPERIMENTAL DETERMINATION OF PI FOR REAL SYSTEMS......Page 448
E. GRAVITATIONAL SYNERESIS OR CREAMING......Page 451
F. INCREASE IN SPECIFIC SURFACE AREA WITH /......Page 452
G. SURFACE AREA IN FILMS VERSUS TOTAL SURFACE AREA......Page 454
A. DRY-FOAM LIMIT (Ó=1)......Page 455
B. FOAMS WITH FINITE LIQUID CONTENT (Ó< 1)......Page 456
VII. MECHANICAL AND RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES......Page 457
1. ELASTIC AND YIELD PROPERTIES: SHEAR MODULUS AND YIELD STRESS......Page 458
2. SHEAR VISCOSITY......Page 467
B. EXPERIMENTAL APPROACHES AND RESULTS......Page 472
1. SYSTEM CHARACTERIZATION......Page 473
2. RHEOLOGICAL EVALUATION......Page 474
3. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS......Page 477
VIII. ADDITIONAL AREAS OF INTEREST......Page 485
IX. POSTSCRIPT......Page 486
LATIN SYMBOLS......Page 487
GREEK SYMBOLS......Page 488
REFERENCES......Page 489
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 494
II. DEFINITION......Page 495
2. WEIGHTING AGENTS......Page 496
2. HYDROCOLLOIDS......Page 503
5. COLORINGS......Page 508
B. STEP 2. PREHOMOGENIZATION......Page 509
IV. STABILITY PROBLEMS......Page 510
A. CREAMING......Page 511
V. STABILIZATION OF BEVERAGE EMULSIONS......Page 512
A. STOKES’ LAW......Page 513
B. ADSORPTION AT INTERFACES......Page 514
C. ELECTROSTATIC INTERACTION......Page 519
VI. PARTICLE SIZE CHARACTERIZATION......Page 521
B. LIGHT-SCATTERING DETERMINATION......Page 523
C. LASER DIFFRACTION TECHNIQUE......Page 524
VII. STABILITY CRITERIA SETTING......Page 525
REFERENCES......Page 528
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 534
A. MICROSTRUCTURE OF DRESSINGS AND SAUCES......Page 537
B. RHEOLOGY OF DRESSINGS AND SAUCES......Page 538
E. NONCLASSIC DRESSINGS AND SAUCES......Page 539
A. INTRODUCTION......Page 540
B. MAYONNAISE AND SPOONABLE SALAD DRESSINGS......Page 543
1. KETCHUP......Page 545
A. INTRODUCTION......Page 547
B. RHEOLOGICAL MEASUREMENTS......Page 549
C. EMULSION RHEOLOGY......Page 550
A. INTRODUCTION......Page 552
B. THEORETICAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 553
2. STERIC STABILIZATION......Page 554
4. PARTICLE STABILIZATION......Page 555
C. EMULSIFIERS AND STABILIZERS......Page 556
1. EGGS......Page 558
3. DAIRY PROTEINS......Page 559
E. PRACTICAL CONSIDERATIONS......Page 560
V. PROCESSING OF DRESSINGS AND SAUCES......Page 561
A. DROP BREAKAGE......Page 563
B. EMULSIFIER EFFECT......Page 566
C. PROCESS DESIGN AND EQUIPMENT SELECTION......Page 569
VI. NONCLASSIC DRESSINGS AND SAUCES......Page 572
VII. CONCLUSIONS AND PROGNOSTICATION......Page 575
REFERENCES......Page 576
A. INTRODUCTION......Page 582
B. ULTRASONIC PROPAGATION IN FOOD EMULSIONS......Page 583
1. MONOPOLE SCATTERING COEFFICIENT, AM......Page 585
3. LIMITATIONS OF THE THEORY......Page 586
C. ULTRASONIC MEASUREMENTS......Page 590
A. DROPLET CONCENTRATION......Page 592
B. PARTICLE SIZE......Page 593
D. GRAVITATIONAL SEPARATION......Page 594
E. DROPLET CRYSTALLIZATION......Page 595
III. CONCLUSIONS......Page 597
REFERENCES......Page 598
I. INTRODUCTION......Page 602
A. FUNDAMENTALS......Page 603
C. DYNAMIC PARAMETERS......Page 605
D. MEASUREMENT OF SELF-DIFFUSION......Page 607
A. DETERMINATION OF EMULSION DROPLET RADII BY MEANS OF THE NMR DIFFUSOMETRY METHOD......Page 611
B. APPLICATIONS OF NMR TECHNIQUES TO INVESTIGATE DIFFUSION AND FLOW IN FOOD EMULSIONS......Page 615
IV. NMR DIFFUSION STUDIES OF CONCENTRATED EMULSIONS......Page 616
V. NMR DIFFUSION STUDIES OF MULTIPLE EMULSIONS......Page 619
VI. DETERMINATION OF THE EMULSION COMPOSITION......Page 621
VIII. DETERMINATION OF EMULSION SHELF LIFE AND EMULSION STABILITY......Page 623
A. IDENTIFICATION OF THE DISPERSED PHASE IN EMULSIONS......Page 625
B. STUDY OF THE PROPERTIES OF THE CONTINUOUS PHASE......Page 626
D. MOLECULAR ORGANIZATION FROM RELAXATION MEASUREMENTS......Page 628
X. DEGREE OF SOLIDIFICATION OF THE DISPERSED PHASE......Page 629
A. DETERMINATION OF THE SOLID FAT CONTENT......Page 630
B. STUDIES OF THE EMULSION STABILITY......Page 634
REFERENCES......Page 636