دانلود کتاب Historical Linguistics, fourth edition: An Introduction

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COVER
HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS: AN INTRODUCTION
CONTENTS
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES AND MAPS
PREFACE
PHONETIC SYMBOLS AND CONVENTIONS
PHONETIC SYMBOLS CHART
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 What historical linguistics isn\'t
1.2 What is Historical Linguistics About?
1.3 Kinds of Linguistic Changes: An English Example
1.4 Exercises
2 SOUND CHANGE
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Kinds of Sound Change
2.3 Non-phonemic (Allophonic) Changes
2.3.1 Non-phonemic unconditioned changes
2.3.2 Non-phonemic conditioned changes
2.4 Phonemic Changes
2.4.1 Merger (A, B > B, or A, B > C)
2.4.2 Splits
2.4.2.1 Secondary split (A > B, C)
2.4.2.2 Primary split (A > B, C)
2.4.3 Unconditioned phonemic changes
2.4.4 Conditioned phonemic changes
2.5 Sporadic Changes
2.6 General Kinds of Sound Changes
2.6.1 Assimilation
2.6.1.1 Total contact regressive assimilation
2.6.1.2 Total contact progressive assimilation
2.6.1.3 Partial contact regressive assimilation
2.6.1.4 Partial contact progressive assimilation
2.6.1.5 Distant (non-adjacent) assimilation
2.6.2 Dissimilation
2.7 Kinds of Common Sound Changes
2.7.1 Deletions
2.7.1.1 Syncope (alata > alla)
2.7.1.2 Apocope (tata > tat)
2.7.1.3 Aphaercsis (or apheresis) (atata > tala)
2.7.2 Epentheses or insertions (asta > asata)
2.7.2.1 Prothesis (tata >atata)
2.7.2.2 Anaptyxis (anaptyctic) (VCCV> VCV̆CV)
2.7.2.3 Excrescence (amra > ambra; anra > andra; ansa > antsa)
2.7.2.4 Paragoge (tat > lata)
2.7.3 Compensatory lengthening (tast > ta:t)
2.7.4 Rhotacism (VsV > VrV)
2.7.5 Metathesis (asta > atsa; asata > atasa)
2.7.6 Haplology (tatasa >tasa)
2.7.7 Breaking
2.7.8 Other frequent sound changes
2.7.8.1 Final-devoicing
2.7.8.2 Intervocalic voicing (and voicing generally)
2.7.8.3 Nasal assimilation
2.7.8.4 Palatalization
2.7.8.5 Diphthongization
2.7.8.6 Monophthongization
2.7.8.7 Vowel raising
2.7.8.8 Vowel lowering
2.7.8.9 Nasalization
2.7.8.10 Lenition (weakening)
2.7.8.11 Strengthening (fortition)
2.7.8.12 Gemination
2.7.8.13 Degemination
2.7.8.14 Affrication
2.7.8.15 Spirantization (fricativization)
2.7.8.16 Deaffrication
2.7.8.17 Lengthening
2 7 8.18 Shortening
2.7.8.19 Tonogencsis and prosodic changes
2.8 Relative Chronology
2.9 Chain Shifts
2.10 Exercises
3 LOANWORDS (BORROWING)
3.1 Introduction
3.2 What is a Loanword?
3.3 How do Words get Borrowed?
3.4 How do we Identify Loanwords and Determine the Direction of Borrowing?
3.4.1 Morphological complexity
3.4.2 Clues from cognates
3.4.3 Geographical and ecological clues
3.4.4 Other semantic clues
3.5 Loans as Clues to Linguistic Changes in the Past
3.6 Caiques (Loan Translations, Semantic Loans)
3.7 Emphatic Foreignization
3.8 Exercises
4 ANALOGICAL CHANGE
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Proportional Analogy
4.3 Analogical Levelling
4.4 Analogical Extension
4.5 The Relationship between Analogy and Sound Change
4.6 Immediate and Non-immediate Analogical Models
4.7 Other Kinds of Analogy
4.7.1 Hypercorrection
4.7.2 Folk etymology (popular etymology)
4.7.3 Back formation
4.7.4 Metanalysis (reanalysis)
4.8 Exercises
5 LEXICAL CHANGE
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Lexical Change and New Words
5.2.1 Creations from nothing (root creations)
5.2.2 From personal names and names of peoples
5.2.3 From place names
5,2.4 From brand (trade) names
5.2.5 Acronyms
5.2.6 Compounding
5.2.7 Other productive word-formation and derivational devices
5.2.8 Amalgamation: hybrid words
5.2.9 Blending (contamination)
5.2.10 Clipping (compression, shortening)
5.2.11 Expressive creations
5.3 Obsolescence and Loss of Vocabulary
5.4 Suppletion
5.5 Exercises
6 SEMANTIC CHANGE
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Traditional Notions of Semantic Change
6.2.1 Widening (generalization, extension, broadening)
6.2.2 Narrowing (specialization, restriction)
6.2.3 Degeneration (pejoration)
6.2.4 Elevation (amelioration)
6.2.5 Taboo replacement and avoidance of obscenity
6.2.6 Metaphor
6.2.7 Metonymy
6.2.8 Synecdoche
6.2.9 Displacement (ellipsis)
6.2.10 Hyperbole (exaggeration by overstatement)
6.2.11 Litotes (exaggeration by understatement)
6.2.12 Semantic shift due to contact
6.2.13 Summary of traditional classification
6.3 Attempts to Explain Semantic Change
6.4 Exercises
7 THE COMPARATIVE METHOD AND LINGUISTIC RECONSTRUCTION
7.1 Introduction
7.2 The Comparative Method Up Close and Personal
7.3 A Case Study
7.4 Indo-European and the Regularity of Sound Change
7.4.1 Grimm\'s Law
7.4.2 Grassmann\'s Law
7.4.3 Verner\'s Law
7.4.4 Sound laws and regularity of sound change
7.5 Basic Assumptions of the Comparative Method
7.6 How Realistic are Reconstructed Proto-languages?
7.7 Temporal Limitation to the Comparative Method
7.8 Exercises
8 INTERNAL RECONSTRUCTION
8.1 Introduction
8. 2 Internal Reconstruction Illustrated
8.3.1 Third example: Finnish
8.2.1 First example
8.2.2 Second example
8.3 Relative Chronology
8.3.1 Third example: Finnish
8.3.2 Fourth example: Classical Greek
8.3.3 Fifth example
8.4 The Limitations of Internal Reconstruction
8.5 Internal Reconstruction and the Comparative Method
8.6 Exercises
9 LANGUAGE CLASSIFICATION AND MODELS OF LINGUISTIC CHANGE
9.1 Introduction
9.2 The World\'s Language FamiliesThere arc about 398 distinct language families
9.2.1 Language isolates and their history
9.3 Terminology
9.4 How to Draw Family Trees: Subgrouping
9.5 Models of Language Change
9.5.1 The family-tree model
9.5.2 The challenge from dialectology and the \'wave theory\'
9.5.3 Dialectology (linguistic geography, dialect geography)
9.5.4 A framework for investigating the causes of linguistic change
9.6 Sociolinguistics and Language Change
9.6.1 Historical sociolinguistics
9.6.2 The issue of lexical diffusion
9.7 Exercises
10 LANGUAGE CONTACT
10.1 Introduction
10.2 What Can Be Borrowed besides Just Words?
10.2.1 Borrowed sounds used in native lexical items
10.2.2 Shifts in native sounds
10.2.3 Elimination of sounds through language contact
10.2.4 Retention of native sounds due to language contact
10.2.5 Borrowed rules
10.2.6 Diffused sound changes
10.2.7 Borrowed bound morphology
10.3 Areal Linguistics
10.3.1 Defining the concept
10.3.2 Examples of linguistic areas
10.3.3 How to determine linguistic areas
10.4 Pidgins and Creoles
10.4.1 Structural characteristics of pidgins and creoles
10.4.2 Pidgin and creole origins
10.5 Mixed Languages
10.6 Endangered Languages and Linguistic Change
11 CHANGE IN SYNTAX AND MORPHOLOGY
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Mechanisms of Syntactic Change
11.2.1 Reanalysis
11.2.2 Extension
11.2.2.1 First example: Spanish reflexive to passive
11.2.3 Syntactic borrowing
11.3 Generative Approaches
11.4 Grammaticalization
11.4.1 Examples of typical grammaticalization changes
11.4.2 The status of grammaticalization
11.5 Reconstruction of Morphology and Syntax
11.5.1 Morphological reconstruction
11.5.2 Syntactic reconstruction
11.5.2.1 Morphological reconstruction as clues to syntactic reconstruction
11.5.2.2 Directionality
11.5.2.3 Archaisms
11.5.2.4 Reanalysis as an obstacle to reconstruction
11.5.2.3 Archaisms
11.5.2.5 Borrowing as an obstacle to syntactic reconstruction
11.5.3 What can be successfully reconstructed
11.6 Exercises
12 EXPLANATION OF LANGUAGE CHANGE
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Early Theories
12.3 Internal and External Causes
12.4 Interaction of Causal Factors
12.4.1 Classical Greek loss of intervocalic s and morphological conditioning
12.4.2 Estonian loss of final -n
12.4.3 Estonian compensation for lost final -n
12.4.4 Avoidance of pernicious homophony
12.4.5 Loss (neglect)
12.5 One Form, One Meaning
12.6 Explanation and Prediction
13 DISTANT GENETIC RELATIONSHIP
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Lexical Comparison
13.2.1 Basic vocabulary
13.2.2 Glottochronology
13.2.3 Multilateral (or mass) comparison
13.3 Sound Correspondences
13.4 Grammatical Evidence
13.5 Borrowing
13.6 Semantic Constraints
13.7 Onomatopoeia
13.8 Nursery Forms
13.9 Short Forms and Unmatched Segments
13.10 Chance Similarities
13.11 Sound-Meaning Isomorphism
13.12 Only Linguistic Evidence
13.13 Erroneous Morphological Analysis
13.14 Non-cognates
13.14.1 Words of limited distribution
13.14.2 Neglect of known history
13.15 Spurious Forms
13.16 Areal Linguistics and Proposals of Distant Genetic Relationship
13.17 Some Examples of Long-range Proposals
13.17.1 Altaic
13.17.2 Nostratic
13.17.3 Amerind
13.18 Methodological Wrap-up and Looking to the Future
13.19 Exercises
14 WRITING AND PHILOLOGY: THE ROLE OF WRITTEN RECORDS
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Writing and the History of Writing Systems
14.2.1 Kinds of writing systems
14.2.2 Origins of writing
14.2.3 Generalizations about writing and its origins
14.2.4 Kinds of signs and their evolution in writing systems
14.2.5 The organization of Maya writing
14.2.6 Alphabetic writing
14.3 Philology
14.3.1 Examples of what philology can contribute
14.4 The Role of Writing
14.4.1 Getting historical linguistic information from written sources
14.5 Exercises
15 LINGUISTIC PREHISTORY
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Indo-European Linguistic Prehistory
15.2.1 Agriculture
15.2.2 Domestic animals and animal husbandry
15.2.3 Foods
15.2.4 Economy and commerce
15.2.5 Legal terms
15.2.6 Transport
15.2.7 Technology (other tools and implements)
15.2.8 House and building(s)
15.2.9 Clothing and textiles
15.2.10 Warfare and fortification
15.2.11 Social structure and social interaction
15.2.12 Religion and beliefs
15.3 The Methods of Linguistic Prehistory
15.3.1 The cultural inventory of reconstructed vocabulary
15.3.1.1 Proto-Finno-Ugric and Proto-Uralic culture
15.3.1.1.1 Proto-Uralic culture
15.3.1.1.2 Proto-Finno-Ugric culture
15.3.1.2 Proto-Mayan culture
15.3.1.3 Proto-Mixe-Zoquean culture
15.3.1.4 Cautions about reconstructed vocabulary
15.3.2 Linguistic homeland and linguistic migration theory
15.3.2.1 Homeland clues in the reconstructed vocabulary
15.3.2.2 Linguistic migration theory
15.3.2.3 Proto-Indo-European homeland
15.3.2.4 Proto-Algonquian homeland
15.3.2.5 Proto-Uto-Aztecan homeland
15.3.2.6 Uralic and Finno-Ugric homeland
15.3.2.7 Cautions concerning linguistic homelands migration theory
15.3.3 Borrowing: cultural inferences from loanwords
15.3.3.1 Turkic loans in Hungarian
15.3.3.2 The Olrnec Mixe-Zoquean hypothesis
15.3.3.3 Cautions about interpreting loans
15.3.4 Wörter und Sachen
15.4 Limitations and Cautions
15.5 Exercises
16 QUANTITATIVE APPROACHES TO HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS AND TECHNICAL TOOLS
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Giottochronoiogy
16.2.1 Basic assumptions
16.2.2 Historical background of glottochronology
16.2.3 Criticisms of glottochronology
16.2.3.1 Problems with the assumption of basic vocabulary\'
16.2.3.2 Problems with assumptions (2) and (3)
16.2.3.3 Problems in calculating dates of separation
16.2.4 Purported uses of glottochronology
16.3 Word Lists, Stability, and Replacement Rates
16.4 Other Recent Quantitative Approaches
16.4.1 Some terminological prerequisites and preliminaries
16.4.2 Probability approaches
16.4.3 Methods inspired by evolutionary biology
16.4.3.1 Background
16.4.3.2 Reactions
16.4.4 Phylogenetic methods
16.4.5 Distance methods
16.4.6 Character-based methods
16.4.6.1 Maximum parsimony
16.4.6.2 Compatibility methods
16.4.6.3 Model-based methods
16.4.7 Network methods
16.4.7.1 Neighbour-Net
16.4.7.2 Bayesian methods
16.4.8 What counts as data, how is it dealt with?
16.4.9 Applications
16.4.9.1 Subgrouping
16.4.9.2 Distant genetic relationships
16.4.9.3 Dating
16.4.9.4 Contributions to prehistory
16.4.9.5 Probability ofcognacy
16.4.9.6 Dialectology
16.5 Historical Corpus Linguistics
16.6 Conclusions
INDEX
BIBLIOGRAPHY