دانلود کتاب Human Evolution: Bones, Cultures, and Genes

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Preface
Acknowledgments
Contents
List of Figures
List of Tables
Part I: Introduction
Chapter 1: The Reflection in the Mirror
Origin Stories
Constructing Human Identity
Traits That Made Us Human
An Overview of Human Evolution
A Historic Debate: Out of Africa Versus Multiregionalism
Multiregional Model
Out of Africa
Mitochondrial Eve
The Uses of History
Paleoanthropology for the Future
References
Chapter 2: Background: Evolutionary Classification and Fossil Dating
Defining a Species
The Origin of a New Species
Speciation Versus Variation
A Philosophical Debate: Lumpers Versus Splitters
Cladistic Classification
Reprise: What Is a Species?
Dating Fossils
Relative Dating
Absolute Dating: Radioisotope Decay
Absolute Dating: Other Techniques
Are the Dates Correct? Correlation, Precision, and Accuracy
References
Chapter 3: A Primate Heritage
Characteristics of Primates
Skull, Teeth, and Diet
Senses and the Brain
Limbs, Posture, and Locomotion
Reproduction and Society
Hominoid Adaptations
The Living Apes
Gibbons (Family Hylobatidae)
Orangutans (Genus Pongo)
Gorillas (Genus Gorilla)
Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes)
Bonobos (Pan paniscus)
Building a Model
References
Part II: The First Hominins
Chapter 4: Miocene Hominoids
Where Hominins Came from
A Discovery of Diversity
Hominoid Origins
The First Anthropoids
Early Hominoids in Africa
Neither Ape Nor Monkey-like
Recognizing the Earliest Hominins
The Oldest Hominin Candidates
Did Hominins and Humans First Evolve in East Africa?
References
Chapter 5: The Early Hominins: Australopiths
Discovery
Australopiths from South Africa: Historical Roots
The Cradle of Humankind
Making Sense of the South African Fossils
Australopith Fossils in East Africa
The Incompleteness of the Fossil Record
The East African Rift Valley
Species and Relationships
Australopithecus
Kenyanthropus
Paranthropus
Summary of Major Australopith Sites (Table 5.2)
Sites in the Afar Triangle, Ethiopia
Sites in the Omo-Lake Turkana Basin
Sites in Tanzania
Sites Outside the Rift Valley
Major South African Sites
References
Chapter 6: The Ecological Context of Early Hominin Evolution
Paleoenvironment: Where Did Australopiths Live?
The Formation of the East African Savanna
All Habitats Are Local
Tools for Reconstructing Habitats
In What Habitats Did Early Hominin Species Live?
Habitats of the Earliest Hominins
Australopith Habitats in East Africa
Australopith Habitats in South Africa
Summary
Was Early Hominin Evolution Driven by Habitat Change?
References
Chapter 7: Understanding Australopiths
Changing Questions
What Did Australopiths Eat?
Evidence from the Teeth
Evidence from the Jaws
Evidence from Microwear
Evidence from Microwear
Evidence from Stable Carbon Isotopes
What Australopiths Ate
Brain and Body Size
Rate of Growth
Social Structure
Patrilocality
Sexual Dimorphism
Australopith Reproductive Patterns
References
Chapter 8: The Evolution of Bipedality
Tracking the Evolution of Bipedalism
The Anatomy of Bipedalism
Adaptations for Upright Balance
Adaptations for Lateral Balance
Adaptations for Propulsion
Adaptations for Carrying Weight
Body Proportions
Limb Proportions Among the Australopiths
Australopiths Looking Back: The Last Common Ancestor
Conclusions: Australopith Positional Behavior
Why Are We Bipedal?
Advantages of Bipedalism: An Abundance of Origin Stories
Imagining the Ancestor
Putting the Evidence Together: A Scenario (Fig. 8.26)
References
Part III: The First Humans
Chapter 9: The Earliest Humans in Africa
Tools Need a Tool-Maker
The First Members of Homo
Homo habilis
Earlier Fossils
Defining Homo
More Habilines
Postcranial Evidence
Homo ergaster
Homo or Australopithecus?
Australopiths Looking Forward: The Direct Human Ancestor
The Environmental Context of the First Homo
Climate Trends in East Africa
Adaptive Responses
References
Chapter 10: The First Technology
Discovering Tools
The First Tools
The Earliest Hominin Tools
The Oldowan Tradition
The Oldowan Reveals Behavior
The Oldowan in Time and Space
Tool-making Hands
Human Adaptations of the Hand
The Hands of Fossil Hominins
References
Chapter 11: Diet of Early Homo
Carnivory and Hunting
Hunting by Chimpanzees
Archaeological Evidence for Carnivory
The Rest of the Diet
How Did Early Hominins Hunt?
Evolution of the Modern Body
Skeletal Changes
Respiratory System
Cardiac Changes
Integument
Endurance and Exercise
References
Chapter 12: Evolution of the Brain
The Knowledge of Good and Evil
How Did Brain Size Increase Through Time?
What Does Brain Size Mean?
Managing the Cost of a Large Brain
Energy for the Brain
Metabolism
Brain-specific Nutrition
Models of Higher Brain Evolution
The Ecological Hypothesis
The Social Hypothesis
Explaining the Human Brain
Structural Changes in the Evolving Brain
Parts of the Neocortex
The Prefrontal Cortex
Parieto-occipital Reorganization
Genetic Hints
Language
Language is Defined to be Unique to Humans
Neuroanatomy of Language
Vocal Anatomy
Recursive Thoughts: The Origin of Language
References
Chapter 13: Leaving Africa
The First Emigrants
The Near East
East and South Asia
The Oldest Skeletal Remains Outside of Africa
Dmanisi
Another Puzzle of Diversity
Postcrania from Dmanisi
Phylogenetic Position
Homo floresiensis: Dwarf Hominins in Indonesia
Flores Island
The Bones
The History of Hominins on Flores
What was the Hobbit?
Homo luzonensis
Characterizing the First Asians
References
Part IV: The Middle Pleistocene
Chapter 14: The Erectines of Asia
The Erectine Dilemma
Erectines in China
Peking Man
Characteristics of Homo erectus
More H. erectus
Homo erectus in Java
Pithecanthropus
More Discoveries
Meager Evidence of Behavior
Dating the First Appearance
The End of Homo erectus
Elsewhere in Eastern Asia
Southeast Asia
Korea
References
Chapter 15: Erectines of the West
A Red Herring
Erectines in Africa
Homo ergaster
Later Erectines in Africa
Homo heidelbergensis in Africa
Homo naledi: A Relic Primitive Human in Africa
Homo heidelbergensis in Europe
The Lack of an Asian Connection
The First Europeans and the Ancestry of H. heidelbergensis
Atapuerca
Other Specimens
Homo bodoensis?
The Descendants of the Erectines
References
Chapter 16: Behavior in the Middle Pleistocene
Internal Evidence
Mode 2 Cultures
The Spread of the Acheulean
Adapting to the Pleistocene Cold
Clothing
Shelter
Fire
Cooking
Food Technology
The Cooking Hypothesis
Hunting in the Middle Pleistocene
Olorgesailie: Hunting Baboons in Africa
Gesher Benot Ya’aqov: Butchering Fallow Deer in Israel
Torralba, Ambrona, and Aridos: Scavenging elephants in Spain
Schoeningen: Hunting Horses with Spears in Germany
The Legacy of Meat-Eating and Hunting in Human Evolution
Digestive Tract
Absorption and Nutrition
Microbiome
References
Part V: The Emergence of Modern People
Chapter 17: Late Pleistocene Homo and the Emergence of Modern Humans
The Third Man
Neanderthals
Neanderthals in Time, Space, and Climate
Anatomical Distinctiveness of Neanderthals
The Neanderthal Genome
Neanderthal Origins
The Elusive Denisovans
Late Archaic Chinese Hominins
Evolution of Anatomically Modern Humans in Africa
References
Chapter 18: From the Middle Paleolithic to the Modern Mind
Evidence of the Modern Mind
The Middle Paleolithic in Europe
The Middle Stone Age: Innovation in Africa and Beyond
Blades and Related Tools
Bone Tools
Long Distance Trade and Transport
Changes in Subsistence
The Domestic Space
Curious Objects, Personal Ornaments, and Symbolism
Disposing of the Dead
Becoming Modern in Africa
Explaining Modernity
References
Chapter 19: Modern Humans Disperse From Africa
Mount Carmel
A “Failed” Migration
Out of Africa
Tracking the Dispersal through Genomes
Encounters in Europe
Modern Africans Meet European Neanderthals (Fig. 19.9)
Neanderthals in the Gene Pool
Neanderthal Extinction
Becoming Modern in Europe
Revolution or Continuity?
Arrival of the Upper Paleolithic
Modern Africans Meet Denisovans
More Introgressions
Modern Humans Enter China (Fig. 19.17)
References
Chapter 20: Distributing Modern Peoples
Understanding Modern Populations through Genomics
Of Lice and Men
Origins in Africa (Fig. 20.3)
Ancient Waves of Immigration into Europe
Asian Stability amid Migrations
Australia and the Pacific
The Americas
References
Chapter 21: Life History and Reproduction
Plans for Development
Life History Strategies
Trade-offs
Human Life History
Gestation and Weaning
Litter Size
Birth Spacing
Childhood and Adolescence
Reproductive Lifespan and Lifetime Fertility
Reproductive Cessation
The Grandmother Hypothesis
The Reproductive Filter
Aging and Reproductive Cessation
Longevity
The Emergence of Human Life History
The Evolution of Birth
The Obstetric Pelvis
Why Is the Birth Canal so Small?
To Raise a Child it Takes a Clan
Sex and Pair-bonds
The Necessity of Alloparents
References
Chapter 22: Evolution Today and Tomorrow
The Human Animal
Humans are Subject to Natural Laws
Humans are Constrained by the Physical Environment
Humans Co-evolve with Other Species
The Human Population is Constrained by Carrying Capacity
Humans Make Life History Compromises
Humans Must Live with Our Own Natures
Humans Can Go Extinct
Humans are Different
Domestication and Self-Domestication
Humans Continue to Evolve
Natural Selection Today
Death as a Selective Factor
Finding Selection
References
Appendix of Anatomical Terms
Index