دانلود کتاب Medical Biochemistry

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Front Cover Medical Biochemistry Copyright Dedication Dedication Contents Preface Cover Introduction Chapter 1: Chemical composition of living beings Biogenic elements Biological compounds Summary Further reading Chapter 2: Water The water molecule is polar Hydrogen bond Water as solvent Water as an electrolyte Equilibrium constant Equilibrium of water ionization Acids and bases The strength of acids and bases pH Buffers Titration curve of acids and bases Appendix Expression of concentrations Summary Further reading Chapter 3: Proteins Proteins are macromolecules formed by amino acids Amino acids Optical isomerism Classification of amino acids Neutral amino acids with a nonpolar aliphatic chain Neutral aliphatic amino acids with a nonionizable polar chain Aromatic neutral amino acids Amino acids containing sulfur Acidic (dicarboxylic) amino acids Basic amino acids Proline Other amino acids General properties of amino acids Acid-base properties of amino acids Amino acids titration curve Chemical properties of amino acids Peptides Peptide bond Nomenclature Acid-base properties Biologically important peptides Proteins Acid-base properties Electrophoresis Molecular mass Solubility Dialysis-ultrafiltration Molecular shape Molecular structure Primary structure Secondary structure Tertiary structure Quaternary structure Multimolecular complexes Considerations about protein structure Protein denaturation Protein classification Simple proteins Conjugated proteins Proteins in nutrition Protein structure and function Collagen Keratins Hemoglobin Heme Globin Transport of carbon dioxide Hemoglobin derivatives Carboxyhemoglobin Methemoglobin Hemoglobin A1c Abnormal hemoglobins Blood plasma proteins Main plasma proteins Muscle proteins Muscle contraction Proteomics Summary Further reading Chapter 4: Carbohydrates Monosaccharides Isomerism Monosaccharides of interest in human biochemistry Glucose Galactose Mannose Fructose Pentoses Haworth's formulas Monosaccharide derivatives Glycosides Products obtained from the reduction of hexoses Deoxysugars Products of oxidation of aldoses Phosphoric esters Amino sugars Disaccharides Maltose Lactose Saccharose Polysaccharides Homopolysaccharides Starch Glycogen Dextrins Dextrans Inulin Cellulose Chitin Heteropolysaccharides Glycosaminoglycans Dietary fiber Proteoglycans Peptidoglycans Glycoproteins Summary Further reading Chapter 5: Lipids Classification Fatty acids Fatty acids properties Physical properties Chemical properties Properties that depend on the carboxyl group Properties dependent on the carbon chain Essential fatty acids Simple lipids Acylglycerols Acylglycerols properties Physical properties Chemical properties Nutritional importance of fats Waxes Complex lipids Phospholipids Glycerophospholipids Sphingophospholipids Glycolipids Cerebrosides Gangliosides Lipoproteins Substances associated with lipids Terpenes Sterols Eicosanoids Lipidomics Summary Further reading Chapter 6: Nucleic acids Nucleotides Nucleic acids Deoxyribonucleic acid DNA molecular structure DNA denaturation Renaturation Chromatin Circular DNA Genome Ribonucleic acid Messenger ribonucleic acid Transfer ribonucleic acid Ribosomal ribonucleic acid Small nuclear nucleoproteins Virus Free nucleotides Summary Further reading Chapter 7: Elements of thermodynamics and biochemical kinetics Thermodynamics Energy Energy changes in chemical reactions Laws of thermodynamics Free energy The direction of a chemical reaction Chemical equilibrium The cell as an open system High-energy compounds Energetically coupled reactions Chemical kinetics Reaction order Activation energy Summary Further reading Chapter 8: Enzymes Enzymes are biological catalysts Nomenclature and classification of enzymes Chemical nature of enzymes Metalloenzymes Enzymatic catalysis Active site Zymogens Genetic alterations that affect enzyme function Enzyme distribution within the cell Multienzyme systems Determination of enzyme activity Factors that modify enzyme activity Enzyme inhibitors Irreversible inhibitors Reversible inhibitors Regulation of enzyme activity Constitutive and inducible enzymes Enzymatic processes in cascade Isozymes Determination of enzymes in the clinical laboratory Summary Further reading Chapter 9: Biological oxidations: Bioenergetics The energy-rich intermediate ATP Oxidation-reduction Oxidation involves Electron loss Reduction potential Reduction potential determination Biological oxidations Mitochondria Respiratory chain Transfer of reduction equivalents Respiratory chain components Respiratory chain complexes Electron transport inhibitors Oxidative phosphorylation Mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation Coupling of Electron transport andproton translocation ATP synthesis in the complex F0F1 ATP-ADP transport ATP yield of oxidative phosphorylation Inhibitors of oxidative phosphorylation Respiratory control Genetic deficiencies of the respiratory chain Brown fat Hydrogen shuttle systems Phosphorylation at substrate level Other electron transport systems Summary Further reading Chapter 10: Antioxidants Reactive species Reactive oxygen species Reactive nitrogen species Harmful effects of reactive species Cell signaling role of reactive species Defense mechanisms against reactive oxygen species Summary Further reading Chapter 11: Membranes Structure Membrane lipids Membrane proteins Carbohydrates Subcellular organelles Transport across membranes Diffusion Passive transport or facilitated diffusion Channels Water channaels-Aquaporins Channels between cells Compounds that function as channels Facilitated diffusion transporters Active transport P-type ATPases Na+,K+-ATPase Ca2+-ATPase H+,K+-ATPase F-type ATPases V-type ATPase ABC transporters Secondary active transport Channelopathies Nerve impulse Movement of substances by membrane vesicles Endocytosis Exocytosis Vesicular transport Exosomes or extracellular vesicles Cell adhesion Cilia Summary Further reading Chapter 12: Digestion-Absorption Saliva Composition Inorganic components Regulation of saliva secretion Digestive action of saliva Other functions of saliva Gastric secretion Hydrochloric acid Digestive action of gastric secretion Analysis of gastric secretion Pancreatic juice Inorganic components Digestive action of pancreatic juice Intestinal mucosa Brush border enzymes Bile Composition Summary of the digestive process Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Nucleic acids Absorption Carbohydrates Lipids Proteins Water and electrolytes Gastrointestinal microbiome Summary Further reading Chapter 13: Metabolism Metabolic pathways Metabolic studies Model systems used in metabolic studies Approaches used to study metabolism Metabolomics Regulation of metabolism Compartmentalization of enzymes involved in metabolism Summary Further reading Chapter 14: Carbohydrate metabolism Glucose uptake into cells Glucose phosphorylation Metabolic pathways for glucose Glycogenesis Energy requirements for glycogen synthesis Glycogenolysis Genetic diseases related to glycogen metabolism Glycolysis First phase of glycolysis Second phase of glycolysis Energy balance of glycolysis Functional role of glycolysis Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate Citric acid, tricarboxylic acid, or Krebs cycle Citric acid cycle reactions Genetic defects of the citric acid cycle General considerations about the citric acid cycle Citric acid cycle functional role Citric acid cycle energy balance Glucose oxidation energy balance Hexose monophosphate or pentose phosphate pathway Pentose pathway functional significance Gluconeogenesis General considerations about gluconeogenesis Gluconeogenesis energy cost Cori's cycle Metabolism of other hexoses Fructose metabolism Galactose metabolism Blood glucose Nucleotide sugars Biosynthesis of oligosaccharides in glycoproteins Biosynthesis of oligosaccharides linked to serine or threonine (O) Biosynthesis of asparagine-linked oligosaccharides (N-oligosaccharides) Degradation of proteoglycans and glycoproteins Summary Further reading Chapter 15: Lipid metabolism Plasma lipoprotein metabolism Chylomicrons Very low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) Low-density lipoproteins High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) Lipoprotein (a) Receptors Lipoproteins and atherosclerosis Fat metabolism Glycerol metabolism Fatty acid catabolism β-Oxidation Other oxidation pathways Unsaturated fatty acids oxidation Fatty acid oxidation energy balance Ketogenesis Ketosis Glucose formation from fats Fatty acid biosynthesis De novo cytoplasmic synthesis of fatty acids Fatty acid synthesis steps Malonyl-CoA formation Fatty acid synthase Fatty acid elongation Unsaturated fatty acids biosynthesis Monoethylenic Polyethylenic Eicosanoid biosynthesis Triacylglycerol biosynthesis Obesity Phospholipid biosynthesis Complex lipid degradation Congenital disorders of complex lipid catabolism Cholesterol metabolism Cholesterol biosynthesis Alterations of plasma lipids Summary Further reading Chapter 16: Amino acid metabolism Essential AA Protein requirements Fate of AA in the body Amino acid transport Amino acid catabolism Transamination Glutamate deamination Metabolic pathways of ammonia Glutamine formation Urea formation Considerations about the urea cycle Inborn errors of urea cycle Ammonia toxicity Role of various organs in amino acid metabolism Fate of the carbon skeleton of AA Intermediate metabolites formed by the catabolism of AA Metabolic fate of branched chain AA Amino acid biosynthesis Other general mechanisms of amino acid metabolism Decarboxylation Biosynthesis of biological amines Transfer of monocarbon groups Metabolic pathways of AA Metabolism of phenylalanine and tyrosine Catecholamine biosynthesis Melanin synthesis Thyroid hormone synthesis Inborn errors of tyrosine and phenylalanine metabolism Tryptophan metabolism Serotonin biosynthesis Melatonin synthesis Nicotinic acid synthesis Bacterial putrefaction Nitric oxide synthesis Use of AA in detoxification or biotransformation reactions Creatine synthesis Glutathione Inborn errors of amino acid metabolism Summary Further reading Chapter 17: Heme metabolism Heme biosynthesis Porphyrias Catabolism of heme Summary Further reading Chapter 18: Purine and pyrimidine metabolism Purine biosynthesis Purine salvage pathway Purine catabolism Uric acid Gout Pyrimidine biosynthesis Pyrimidine catabolism Di- and triphosphate nucleoside biosynthesis Deoxyribonucleotide biosynthesis Pharmacological approaches to purine and pyrimidine metabolism Summary Further reading Chapter 19: Integration and regulation of metabolism Interconversion of carbohydrates, lipids, and amino acids Metabolic regulation Examples of metabolic regulation Regulation of glycogen synthesis and degradation Glycogenolysis Glycogenesis Regulation of glycolysis and gluconeogenesis Pasteur effect Oxidative decarboxylation of pyruvate Regulation of the citric acid cycle Regulation of fatty acid metabolism Regulation of cholesterol biosynthesis Regulation of the metabolism of nitrogenous compounds Metabolic interactions Regulation of cellular oxidations Regulatory role of adenylates Summary Further reading Chapter 20: Metabolism in some tissues Liver metabolism Carbohydrates Lipids Amino acids Biotransformation Ethanol metabolism Skeletal muscle metabolism Heart metabolism Adipose tissue metabolism Nervous tissue metabolism Summary Further reading Chapter 21: The genetic information (I) DNA replication Cell cycle Enzymes and factors involved in DNA replication Mechanism of DNA replication DNA Repair Telomerase Transcription Transcription in prokaryotes Transcription in eukaryotes Synthesis of precursor messenger RNA Synthesis of Transfer RNA Synthesis of ribosomal RNA Reverse transcriptase Molecular biology Methods used in molecular biology Summary Molecular biology Further reading Chapter 22: The genetic information (II) Protein biosynthesis Genetic code Nuclear DNA Human genome project Mitochondrial DNA Messenger RNA Transcriptome Ribosomal RNA Transfer RNA Ribonucleic enzymes or ribozymes Mechanism of protein synthesis Antibiotic effects on DNA and protein synthesis Antibiotics that block replication Antibiotics that block transcription Antibiotics that block translation Genetic mutations Transposons Variome Transgenesis DNA microarrays Proteome Personalized medicine Mechanism of virus action Oncogenes Tumor suppressor genes Epigenetics Summary Further reading Chapter 23: Regulation of gene expression Gene regulation in eukaryotes Gene regulatory networks Gene regulation by noncoding RNAs Small noncoding RNAs Long noncoding RNAs Riboswitches Summary Further reading Chapter 24: Posttranslational protein modifications Protein folding Pathologies caused by misfolded proteins Posttranslational protein modifications Role of protein posttranslational modifications in disease Relevance of protein posttranslational modifications in cell protein trafficking Summary Further reading Chapter 25: Biochemical basis of endocrinology (I) receptors and signal transduction Receptors Intracellular receptors Plasma membrane receptors Signal transduction systems 3,5-cyclic-AMP system 3,5-cyclic-GMP Phosphatidylinositol bisphosphate system (lipids in signaling systems) Ras and MAP kinases system JAK-STAT system mTOR Notch pathway Wnt signaling Hedgehog pathway Ca2+ signal Cross talk between signaling systems Scaffold proteins Summary Further reading Chapter 26: Biochemical bases of endocrinology (II) hormones and other chemical intermediates Hormones Classification and structure Actions promoted by hormones General properties of hormones Hormone determination methods Endocrine glands and their hormones Hypothalamic hormones Pituitary hormones Anterior pituitary or adenohypophysis hormone Adrenocorticotropin hormone Thyroid-stimulating hormone Gonadotropins Prolactin or lactogenic hormone Growth hormone or somatotropin Melanocyte stimulatory hormone Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) hormones Oxytocin Arginine vasopressin Placental hormones Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) Placental lactogen Thyroid hormones Adrenal gland hormones Adrenal cortex hormones Alterations of adrenocortical hormones Adrenal medulla hormones Pancreatic hormones Insulin Glucagon Somatostatin Glucose homeostasis Diabetes mellitus Gonadal hormones Testis androgens Ovarian hormones Estrogen actions Progesterone actions Ovarian peptide hormones Parathyroid gland hormones Parathyroid hormone alterations Calcitonin Kidney hormones Renin Erythropoietin Bradykinin Endothelin Urodilatin Calcitriol Heart hormones Natriuretic peptides Gastrointestinal hormones Gastrin Secretin Cholecystokinin Vasoactive intestinal peptide Enteroglucagon Ghrelin Amylin Galanin Pineal gland hormone Eicosanoids Growth factors Nervous system chemical intermediaries (Neurotransmitters) Summary Further reading Chapter 27: Vitamins Fat-soluble vitamins Vitamin A Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Water-soluble vitamins Vitamin B complex Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Pantothenic acid Pyridoxine Biotin Folic acid Cobalamin Ascorbic acid Other nutritional factors Choline Taurine Carnitine Inositol Lipoic acid Summary Further reading Chapter 28: Water and acid-base balance Water distribution in the body Water balance Ionic composition of body fluids Alterations of the water balance H+ concentration in body fluids Regulation of H+ concentration Carbon dioxide transport Regulatory systems Respiratory regulation Renal regulation Regulation of intracellular pH Acid-base balance disorders H+ excretion regulation Laboratory studies in acid-base disorders Summary Further reading Chapter 29: Essential minerals Macrominerals Sodium (Na) Potassium (K) Chloride (Cl-) Calcium (Ca) Phosphorus (P) Magnesium (Mg) Iron (Fe) Trace elements Copper (Cu) Iodine (I) Manganese (Mn) Molybdenum (Mo) Selenium (Se) Zinc (Zn) Non-essential elements Boron (B) Chromium (Cr) Cobalt (Co) Fluorine (F) Strontium (Sr) Vanadium (V) Summary Further reading Chapter 30: Molecular basis of immunity Immune system Innate system Adaptive system Humoral immunity Kinetics of the immune response Structure of immunoglobulins Heavy chain isotypes Membrane immunoglobulins Clonal selection Characteristics of the antigen Genetic diversity of immunoglobulins Antibody heterogeneity Arrangement of the Ig heavy-chain genes Arrangement of light-chain genes Ig genes rearrangement by VDJ recombination Synthesis of different Ig isotypes Regulatory sequences in Ig genes Memory cells Monoclonal antibodies Complement Classical pathway Membrane attack complex Alternative pathway Regulatory factors Functions of the complement system Cellular immunity T lymphocytes T-cell receptor Major histocompatibility complex Antigen recognition Antigen processing Activation of T lymphocytes Cytokines Interferon Pathologies related to the immune system Vaccines Summary Further reading Chapter 31: Hemostasis Blood coagulation Stages of blood coagulation First stage: Factor Xa formation Second stage: Thrombin formation Third stage: Fibrin formation Regulation of coagulation Fibrinolysis Coagulation disorders Summary Further reading Chapter 32: Cell death Apoptosis Necrosis Pyroptosis Necroptosis Oncosis Anoikis Other types of cell death Summary Further reading Index Back Cover