دانلود کتاب Neotropical Gradients and Their Analysis

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Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 The Neotropics
1.2 Gradients
1.3 The Analysis of Gradients
1.4 Gradients and Ecosystems
1.5 Toward a Theory of Gradients
1.6 Case Study: Reserva Biologica San Francisco, Ecuador
1.6.1 Physical Gradient (Spatial: Elevation): Curve-Fitting Tree Species and Family Patterns Along that Gradient
1.6.2 Physical Gradient (Spatial: Elevation): Curve-Fitting Physical Structure Patterns Along that Gradient
1.7 Case Study: Maquipucuna Reserve, Ecuador
1.7.1 Biological Gradient (Temporal): 1 ha Primary Cloud Forest
1.7.2 Biological Gradient (Temporal): 1 ha Secondary Cloud Forest Recovering After Sugarcane Cultivation, After Banana Cultivation, and After Use as Pasture
1.7.3 Biological Gradient (Spatial): Recruitment Experiments in a 1 ha Secondary Cloud Forest Recovering After Sugarcane Cultivation, After Banana Cultivation, and After Use as Pasture
1.7.4 Biological Gradient (Spatial): Landslide
1.8 Case Study: Area de Conservacion Regional Comunal de Tamshiyacu-Tahuayo, Peru
1.8.1 Physical/Chemical Gradient (Spatial): Primary Igapó Forest Flooding × Tree-Fall Gap Plots: Soils, Floristics, and Physical Structure
1.8.2 Physical/Chemical Gradient (Spatial): Primary Igapó Forest Flooding × Tree-Fall Gap Plots: Seed Predation, Seed Pathogens, Germination
1.9 Case Study: The Luquillo Experimental Forest in Puerto Rico, USA, the Tropical Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) Site of the U. S. National Science Foundation
1.9.1 Physical Gradient (Spatial: Elevation): Forest Tree Ecotypes
1.9.2 Biological Gradient (Spatial Gradient/Temporal Gradient Interactions): Pastures and Coffee Plantation Plots After Abandonment
1.9.3 Physical, Chemical, and Biological Gradients (Spatial Gradient/Temporal Gradient Interactions): Landslide
1.10 Monteverde Cloud Forest, Costa Rica
1.10.1 Biological Gradient (Spatial): Landslide
1.11 Comparing Landslides at LEF and MCF (Large Spatial Gradients): Regeneration
1.12 About This Book
References
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Chapter 2: Mountain Gradients in the Neotropics: A Bracken Fern Perspective
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Andean Barrier as an Atmospheric Water Trap and Impact on Vegetation
2.3 The Complex Andean Topography as a Gene Flow Barrier
2.4 The Question of Invasive Plant Species in the Andes
2.5 Bracken (Pteridium spp.), an Invasive Fern Taxa of Neotropical Mountains
2.6 Herbivory on Andean Brackens
2.6.1 Arthropod Herbivory on Andean Bracken
2.6.2 Bracken Arthropods and Altitude
2.6.3 The Case of Bracken Ants in the Northern Andes
2.6.4 The Impact of Temperature on Ants in the Northern Andes
2.7 Vertebrate Herbivory on Andean Bracken
2.8 Intraplant Competition in Neotropical Mountain Brackens
2.9 Differences Between P. caudatum (PC) and P. esculentum subsp. arachnoideum (PEA)
2.9.1 Macroscopical Differences
2.9.2 Microscopical Differences
2.10 Growth of PC Along a Systematic Elevational Gradient
2.10.1 Establishing an Observational Altitudinal Gradient. Site Description
2.10.2 Climate: Temperatures
2.10.3 Frond Growth: Parameters and Frond Stages
2.10.4 Variation of Dimensional Parameters of PC Fronds
2.10.4.1 Maximum Rachis Length of Mature Fronds: Lr(max)
2.10.4.2 Time-Dependent Elongation of Stipe and Rachis
2.10.4.3 Frond Biomass (BM)
2.10.5 Growth Rate
2.11 PEA Fronds in Mid- to High Elevations in the Northern Andes
2.11.1 General Frond Features and Selected Descriptive Parameters
2.11.2 Study Sites
2.11.3 Climate
2.11.3.1 Air Temperature Along the Altitudinal Gradient A-I to A-III
2.11.3.2 Solar Radiation
2.12 PEA Growth Response to Elevation
2.12.1 Maximum Rachis and Stipe Lengths of Mature Fronds: Lr(max), Ls(max)
2.12.2 Blade Crown Size
2.12.3 Additional Phenotypic Responses of PEA to High Elevation
2.13 Overall Impact of Altitude on PEA
2.14 Phytochemical Responses of Neotropical Brackens to Elevational Gradients
2.15 Prunasin
2.16 Ptaquiloside (PTQ)
2.17 Polyphenolics in Neotropical Brackens and Elevation
2.17.1 Altitudinal Stress Related to Increasing UV-B Solar Radiation Energy
2.17.2 Exploring the Intervening Factors of Phenolic Production in Neotropical Bracken
2.17.2.1 UV-B Absorbance of Leaflet Epidermis
2.17.2.2 Synthesis-Accrual of Phenolics in Bracken, Electronic Spectra, and Frond Stage
2.17.2.3 LMP and HMP and Sun Exposure
2.17.2.4 LMP and HMP and Elevation in PC and PEA
2.17.2.5 Influence of Elevation, Solar Radiation, and Water Stress Combined in PEA
2.18 Concluding Remarks
References
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Chapter 3: Effects of Agricultural Expansion on Lotic Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities: A Review and Case Study from Brazil
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Review: Agricultural Expansion and Benthic Macroinvertebrates in Neotropical Streams
3.3 Case Study: Bodoquena Plateau, Brazil
References
Chapter 4: Plant Competition Across Topographic Gradients in Neotropical Cerrado Savannas: An Isotopic Approach
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 The Cerrado, Its Abiotic Environment and Vegetation Gradients
4.2 The Isotopic Approach
4.3 Topographic Gradients and Plant Competition in Central Brazil
4.4 Final Remarks
References
Chapter 5: Diversity of Aquatic Macroinvertebrates Along Altitudinal Gradients in Colombia
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Altitudinal Changes in Diversity of Different Taxonomic Groups
5.3 Trophic Structure and the Gradient of Elevation
5.4 Anthropogenic Altitudinal Gradients
5.5 Other Drivers Underlying Altitudinal Gradients
References
Chapter 6: Intraspecific Trait Variability of Emblematic Grass and Tree Species from Venezuelan Savannas Across Extended Physical Gradients
6.1 Introduction
6.2 The Emblematic Study Species
6.3 Intrapopulation Variability and Responses to Physical Demands
6.3.1 Field Sampling, Trait Assessment, and Analysis
6.3.2 Species Traits
6.3.3 Species Response Across the Physical Gradients
6.4 Recapitulation
6.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 7: Latitudinal Trends in Scorpion Assemblages of Brazilian Atlantic Forest: Do the Rapoport’s and Bergmann’s Rules Apply?
7.1 Effects of Latitudinal Gradients in Biodiversity
7.2 Rapoport and Bergmann Rules
7.3 Scorpions as Organism Model in Ecological Studies
7.4 The Brazilian Atlantic Forest
7.5 Case Study: Scorpion Assemblage Along Latitudinal Gradient in Brazilian Atlantic Forest
Appendix 7.1
References
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Chapter 8: Species Diversity of Three Faunal Communities Along a Successional Cloud Forest Gradient
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Materials and Methods
8.2.1 Study Area
8.2.2 Forest Successional Gradient
8.2.3 Faunal Sampling
8.2.4 Data Analysis
8.3 Results
8.3.1 Species Richness
8.3.2 Abundance or Occurrence Frequency
8.3.3 Species Composition
8.3.4 Community Structure
8.4 Discussion
8.4.1 Species Richness and Abundance in Forest Specialists Across Forest Chronosequences
8.4.1.1 Amphibians
8.4.1.2 Ants
8.4.1.3 Dung Beetles
8.4.2 Composition Similarity and Community Structure Along the Successional Forest Gradient
8.5 Perspectives
References
Chapter 9: Ecohydrological Gradient in Neotropical Montane Ecosystems: From Tropical Montane Forests to Glacier
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Methodology
9.2.1 Study Sites
9.2.2 Collected Data
9.2.3 Data Analysis
9.3 Results
9.3.1 Temperature
9.3.2 Relative Air Humidity
9.3.3 Evaporation and Evapotranspiration
9.3.4 Streamflow
9.4 Discussion
9.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 10: Communities of Small Terrestrial Arthropods Change Rapidly Along a Costa Rican Elevation Gradient
10.1 Elevational Gradients
10.2 Expectations in the Study of High Elevation Tropical Forest Communities: Past and the Future
10.3 Case Study: Elevation Gradients on the Volcanoes of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (Costa Rica)
10.3.1 Sampling Leaf Litter Arthropods and Temperature Along Elevation Gradients on the Volcanoes of the Área de Conservación Guanacaste (Costa Rica)
10.3.2 Formicidae
10.3.3 Staphylinidae
10.3.4 Araneae
10.3.5 Collembola
10.3.6 Isopoda
10.3.7 Microgastrinae Parasitoid Wasps
10.4 Conclusions and Next Steps
10.4.1 Insect Decline
10.4.2 Thermal Tolerance
10.4.3 Upslope Migration
10.4.4 Idiosyncratic Changes in Alpha Diversity – Consistent Changes in Betadiversity
10.4.5 Beyond Abiotic Factors
10.4.6 Going Forward
References
Chapter 11: Neotropical Gradients of Insect Groups in Brazilian Mountains
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Mountainous Environments as Natural Laboratories for Insect Studies
11.1.2 Neotropical Mountain Insects
11.1.3 Brazilian Mountains
11.1.4 The Espinhaço Range and Campo Rupestre
11.2 Quantifying Insect Diversity
11.2.1 Sampling Methods
11.2.1.1 Entomological Nets
11.2.1.2 Pan Traps
11.2.1.3 Malaise Traps
11.2.1.4 Pitfall Traps
11.2.1.5 Van Someren-Rydon
11.2.1.6 Trap Nests
11.2.1.7 Other Methods
11.3 Explanatory Variables and Analysis
11.3.1 Measures of Diversity
11.3.2 Climatic Variables
11.3.3 Habitat Structural Measurements
11.4 Elevational Gradient of Campo Rupestre (CR) Insects
11.4.1 Hymenoptera
11.4.2 Scarabeinae (Dung Beetles)
11.4.3 Lepidoptera (Butterflies)
11.4.4 Blattodea (Termites)
11.4.5 Insect Galls
11.4.6 Free-Feeding Herbivorous Insects
11.4.7 Aquatic Insects
11.5 Other Gradients in Campos Rupestres
11.5.1 Latitudinal Gradients
11.5.2 Longitudinal Gradients
11.5.3 Xeric-to-Mesic Gradients
11.5.4 Seasonal and Temporal Variation
11.6 Problems and Solutions for Campos Rupestres Insect Communities
References
Chapter 12: Altitudinal Pattern of Soil Organic Carbon and Nutrients in a Tropical Forest in Puerto Rico
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Methods and Materials
12.2.1 Field Sites
12.2.2 Soil Sampling and Lab Analysis
12.2.2.1 Soil Sampling
12.2.2.2 Soil Bulk Density (Db) and Soil Water Content (WC)
12.2.2.3 Soil pH and Particle Size
12.2.2.4 SOM and Soil Extractable Nutrients
12.2.3 Statistical Analyses
12.3 Results
12.3.1 Soil Physical Properties
12.3.2 Soil Carbon and Macronutrients
12.3.3 Soil Micronutrients
12.4 Discussion
References
Chapter 13: Elevational and Latitudinal Species Richness Patterns of Dung Beetles in North and South America and the Role Played by Historical Factors
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Methods
13.2.1 Data Origin
13.2.2 Data Treatment
13.3 Results
13.4 Discussion
Appendix 13.1 – List of Included Publications
References
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Chapter 14: Diversity Patterns of Vascular Plant Groups Along Gradients of Elevation and Disturbance in Mexico
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Methodology
14.2.1 Study Area
14.2.2 Vegetation Sampling
14.2.3 Data Analysis
14.3 Results
14.4 Discussion
14.4.1 Effects of the Elevational Gradient
14.4.2 Effect of the FUI Gradient
14.4.3 Effect of Climatic Variables
14.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 15: Gradients and the Structure of Neotropical Metacommunities: Effects of Disturbance, Elevation, Landscape Structure, and Biogeography
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Metacommunity Ecology
15.3 Elements of Metacommunity Structure
15.4 Useful Methods for Understanding Metacommunity Structure and Structuring Mechanisms
15.4.1 Canonical Correspondence Analysis
15.4.2 Hierarchical Partitioning of Biodiversity
15.4.3 Variation Partitioning
15.5 Empirical Gradients
15.5.1 Elevation
15.5.2 Landscape Structure
15.5.3 Biogeographical Variation
15.5.4 Other Environmental Gradients
15.5.5 Empirical Neotropical Metacommunities: Summary
15.6 Future Directions for Metacommunity Research in the Neotropics
References
Chapter 16: Socioecological Gradients: Contesting Traditional Ecoclines to Explain the High Biocultural Diversity of the Andean Verdant
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Geographic Inquiry
16.1.2 Task at Hand
16.2 Methodologies
16.3 Results
16.3.1 Cultural Bulge in Andean Flanks
16.4 Conclusions and Discussion
References
Chapter 17: Conclusions, Synthesis, and Future Directions
17.1 Conclusions
17.2 Synthesis
17.3 Future Directions
References