دانلود کتاب Optical Fiber Telecommunications V11

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Cover
Optical Fiber Telecommunications VII
Copyright
Dedication
List of contributors
Preface: Overview of Optical Fiber Telecommunications VII
Introduction
Seven editions
Ivan P. Kaminow and Tingye Li
Perspective of the past 6 years
Acknowledgments
Chapter highlights
Optical Fiber Telecommunications VII: Chapter titles, authors, and abstracts
Part I: Devices/Subsystems Technologies
1 Advances in low-loss, large-area, and multicore fibers
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Low-loss and large effective area fibers
1.2.1 Figure of merit of fiber loss and effective area on transmission systems
1.2.2 Fiber loss mechanism and approaches for lowering fiber loss
1.2.3 Fiber design for large effective area
1.2.4 Recent progress on low-loss and large effective area fiber and system results
1.3 Multicore fibers
1.3.1 Design parameters and types of multicore fibers
1.3.1.1 Core pitch
1.3.1.2 Outer cladding thickness
1.3.1.3 Cladding diameter
1.3.2 Coupling characteristics of propagating modes
1.3.2.1 Uncoupled multicore fibers
1.3.2.2 Coupled-power theory for uncoupled MCF
1.3.2.2.1 Discrete coupling model and statistical distribution of the cross talk
1.3.2.3 Coupled multicore fibers
1.3.2.3.1 Systematically coupled multicore fiber
1.3.2.3.2 Randomly coupled multicore fiber
Mechanism of random mode coupling
Group delay spread
Mode-dependent loss
1.3.3 Various MCFs proposed for communications and progress toward practical realization
References
2 Chip-based frequency combs for wavelength-division multiplexing applications
2.1 Wavelength-division multiplexing using optical frequency combs
2.2 Properties of optical frequency combs
2.2.1 Center frequency, line spacing, and line count of frequency combs
2.2.2 Optical linewidth and relative intensity noise
2.2.3 Comb line power and optical carrier-to-noise power ratio
2.3 Chip-scale optical frequency comb generators
2.3.1 Mode-locked laser diodes
2.3.2 Electro-optic modulators for comb generation
2.3.3 Gain-switched laser diodes
2.3.4 Kerr-nonlinear waveguides for spectral broadening
2.3.5 Microresonator-based Kerr-comb generators
2.3.6 Comparative discussion
2.4 Kerr comb generators and their use in wavelength-division multiplexing
2.4.1 Principles and applications of microresonator comb generators
2.4.2 Microresonator fabrication
2.4.3 Application overview of Kerr combs and their spectral coverage
2.4.4 The physics of Kerr comb generation
2.4.5 Dissipative Kerr solitons
2.4.6 Massively parallel wavelength-division multiplexing transmission using dissipative Kerr soliton comb
2.4.6.1 Data transmission with single and interleaved soliton
2.4.6.2 Data transmission with solitons both at the transmitter and at the receiver
2.4.6.3 Progress toward integrated wavelength-division multiplexing transceiver modules
2.5 Conclusions
Appendix A
A.1 Calculation of optical signal-to-noise power ratio (OSNR) at the receiver
A.2 Required receiver optical signal-to-noise power ratio
References
3 Nanophotonic devices for power-efficient communications
3.1 Current state-of-the-art low-power GHz silicon photonic devices
3.1.1 Carrier manipulation mechanisms
3.1.2 Photonic designs of silicon modulators
3.1.2.1 Mach-Zehnder modulators
3.1.2.2 Resonant modulators
3.2 Emerging approaches for improving performance via device design
3.2.1 Novel junction design for improving mode overlap
3.2.2 Novel resonator design
3.2.2.1 Robust resonators to fabrication variations
3.2.2.2 Athermal resonators
3.2.3 Resonance-free light recycling
3.3 Emerging approaches for improving performance via material integration
3.3.1 Materials with strong electro-absorption
3.3.1.1 Germanium and germanium-silicon alloys
3.3.2 Materials with improved plasma dispersion effect
3.3.2.1 III-V semiconductors
3.3.3 Materials with χ(2) nonlinearity
3.3.3.1 Organic nonlinear materials
3.3.3.2 Inorganic nonlinear materials
3.3.4 Two-dimensional materials
3.4 Concluding remarks
References
4 Foundry capabilities for photonic integrated circuits
4.1 Outline of the ecosystem
4.2 InP pure play foundries
4.2.1 InP-specific manufacturing challenges
4.2.2 State-of-the-art generic InP photonic integrated circuit technologies
4.2.2.1 Example 1: Fraunhofer HHI
4.2.3 Multiproject wafer runs
4.3 Turn-key InP foundry
4.3.1 State-of-the-art photonic integrated circuit product examples enabled by InP technologies
4.3.2 InP photonic integrated circuit packaging
4.3.3 InP photonic integrated circuit manufacturing challenges
4.3.4 Turn-key photonic integrated circuit foundry
4.4 Si photonics development
4.5 Future device integration
4.5.1 Si- or Ge-based lasers on Si
4.5.2 III-V-based lasers on Silicon
4.5.2.1 Heterogeneous bonded lasers
4.5.2.2 Epitaxially grown lasers
4.5.2.3 Quantum dot (QD) lasers on silicon
4.6 Photonics mask making
4.7 Photonic packaging
4.7.1 Key photonic integrated circuit packaging technologies
4.7.1.1 Optical packaging
4.7.1.2 Fiber edge coupling
4.7.1.3 Fiber grating coupling
4.7.1.4 Microoptical coupling
4.7.1.5 Evanescent coupling
4.7.2 Electrical packaging
4.7.2.1 Thermomechanical packaging
4.7.3 Photonic integrated circuit packaging design rules and standards
4.8 Silicon photonics integrated circuit process design kit
4.8.1 Silicon photonics process design kit
4.8.1.1 Process design kit hierarchy
4.8.1.2 Development cycle of a process design kit component library
4.8.1.3 Organization of a process design kit component library
4.8.1.4 Verification of a process design kit component library
4.9 Conclusions
4.10 Disclosure
Acknowledgments
References
5 Software tools for integrated photonics
5.1 The growing need for integration and associated challenges
5.2 The need to support multiple material systems
5.3 Applications extend well beyond data communications
5.4 Challenges specific to photonics
5.5 The need for an integrated, standard methodology
5.6 Mixed-mode, mixed-domain simulation
5.6.1 Physical simulation
5.6.2 S-parameter-based simulation of photonic circuits
5.6.3 Transient simulation of photonic circuits
5.6.4 Sample mode and block mode
5.6.5 Electro-optical cosimulation
5.6.6 Dealing with varying timescales
5.6.7 Electrical, optical, thermal, mechanical
5.6.8 Circuit and system level
5.6.9 Other simulation types
5.7 Photonics layout in electronic design automation
5.7.1 Photonics layout: curvilinear, non-Manhattan, and extremes of scale
5.7.2 Schematic driven layout
5.7.3 The generation, characterization, and simulation of waveguides and connectors
5.7.3.1 Composite waveguides
5.7.3.2 Creation/editing
5.7.3.3 Compose/decompose
5.7.3.4 Generated connectors
5.7.3.5 Curved connector
5.7.3.6 The modal properties of generated waveguides for simulation
5.7.3.7 Fluid waveguides
5.8 Electrical and photonic design in the same platform
5.8.1 A system-level vision
5.8.2 Thermal impact analysis
5.8.3 Electromagnetic coupling impact analysis
5.9 Conclusions
5.9.1 Today versus the future
5.9.2 Layout
5.9.3 Simulation and design: statistical simulation and design for manufacturing
Acknowledgments
References
6 Optical processing and manipulation of wavelength division multiplexed signals
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Time lenses and phase-sensitive processing
6.2.1 Fundamentals: principle and potential benefits
6.2.1.1 Space-time duality
6.2.2 Flexible spectral manipulation of wavelength division multiplexed signals
6.2.2.1 K-D-K for spectral compression
6.2.2.2 Demonstrations of spectral manipulation using time lenses
6.2.3 Wavelength division multiplexed phase-sensitive regeneration
6.2.3.1 Principle of wavelength division multiplexed phase regeneration using a time lens and phase-sensitive amplifying unit
6.2.3.2 Experimental demonstration of simultaneous regeneration of 8 and 16 wavelength division multiplexed differential ph...
6.2.3.2.1 Experimental results
6.2.4 Field-quadrature decomposition by polarization-assisted phase-sensitive amplifier
6.2.4.1 Principle
6.2.4.2 16-Quadrature amplitude modulation field-quadrature decomposition
6.2.5 Summary on optical time lenses
6.3 Optical-phase conjugation
6.3.1 Fundamentals—principle and potential benefits
6.3.2 Examples from literature and recent demonstrations
6.3.3 Coding for the optical-phase conjugation channel: complementary digital and optical signal processing—probabilistic s...
6.3.3.1 Motivation for the study
6.3.3.2 Basics of information theory
6.3.3.3 Algorithm for maximizing the achievable information rate
6.3.3.4 The optical-phase conjugation case
6.4 Nonlinear material platforms for optical processing
6.4.1 Highly nonlinear fiber: Efficiency and limitations
6.4.1.1 Design and variations
6.4.2 Photonic chips: broadband and compact
6.4.2.1 Aluminum gallium arsenide
6.4.2.1.1 The aluminum gallium arsenide on insulator platform
6.4.2.1.2 256-Quadrature amplitude modulation wavelength conversion
6.4.2.1.3 Phase-sensitive four-wave mixing
6.4.2.1.4 661Tbit/s signal source
6.4.2.1.5 Summary on aluminum gallium arsenide
6.4.2.2 Figure of merit of nonlinear materials for optical signal processing
6.4.2.2.1 Nonlinear figure of merit for nonresonant structures
6.4.2.3 Amorphous silicon
6.5 Conclusions
References
Further reading
7 Multicore and multimode optical amplifiers for space division multiplexing
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Cost, space, and energy benefits of space division multiplexing amplifiers
7.2 Enabling optical components for space division multiplexing amplifiers
7.2.1 Space division multiplexing components based on micro-optics
7.2.2 Pump and signal combiners
7.3 Multicore fiber amplifiers
7.3.1 Design considerations for multicore fiber amplifiers
7.3.2 Recent progress in multicore fiber amplifiers
7.3.3 Fully fiberized 32-core multicore fiber amplifier
7.4 Multimode fiber amplifiers
7.4.1 Design concept of multimode fiber amplifiers
7.4.2 Recent progress in multimode fiber amplifiers
7.4.3 Fully integrated 6-mode erbium doped fiber amplifier
7.5 Multimode multicore fiber amplifiers
7.6 Future prospects
7.6.1 Current key issues and challenges of space division multiplexing amplifiers
7.6.2 Potential applications of space division multiplexing amplifier technology
7.7 Conclusions
References
Part II: System and Network Technologies
8 Transmission system capacity scaling through space-division multiplexing: a techno-economic perspective
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Traffic growth and network capacity scalability options
8.2.1 Moore’s Law scaling
8.2.2 High-speed interface scaling
8.3 Five physical dimensions for capacity scaling
8.3.1 Increasing capacity through SNR —constraints on M and B
8.3.2 Power-constrained system scaling—parallelism in M and B
8.3.3 Bandwidth and space are not created equal
Reuse of the available infrastructure
Channel power equalization
Bandwidth limitations of fiber and system components
Multiband systems are not truly parallel
Higher carrier frequencies
Crosstalk
Switching
8.4 Architectural aspects of WDM × SDM systems
8.4.1 A Matrix of unit cells and their scaling
8.4.2 Spatial and spectral superchannels
8.4.3 Array integration and a holistic DSP-electronics-optics co-design
8.5 Techno-economic trade-offs in WDM × SDM systems
8.5.1 Chip-to-chip interconnects
8.5.2 Datacenter interconnects
8.5.3 Metro and long-haul networking
8.5.4 Submarine systems
Acknowledgments
References
9 High-order modulation formats, constellation design, and digital signal processing for high-speed transmission systems
9.1 Fiber nonlinearity in optical communication systems with higher order modulation formats
9.1.1 Introduction to optical fiber nonlinearity
9.1.2 Nonlinear distortions and modulation dependency
9.2 Digital schemes for fiber nonlinearity compensation
9.2.1 Principle of digital backpropagation
9.2.2 Achievable digital backpropagation gain
9.3 Digital nonlinearity compensation in presence of laser phase noise
9.4 Signal design for spectrally efficient optical transmission
9.4.1 Coded modulation
9.4.2 Mutual information and generalized mutual information
9.4.3 Constellation shaping
9.4.3.1 Probabilistic shaping
9.4.3.2 Geometrical shaping
9.4.4 Experimental investigation of high spectral efficiency coded modulation systems for optical communications
9.4.4.1 Nyquist wavelength-division multiplexing
9.4.4.2 Higher order modulation formats for the optical fiber channel: experimental and numerical demonstration
9.4.4.3 Numerical investigation of shaped DP-64QAM and DP-256QAM in the optical fiber channel
9.5 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
10 High-capacity direct-detection systems
10.1 Direct-detection systems and their applications
10.2 Principle of conventional direct-detection systems
10.3 Limitations of conventional direct-detection systems
10.4 Advanced direct-detection systems
10.4.1 Self-coherent systems: detecting the optical field with a single photodiode
10.4.2 Kramers–Kronig receivers: rigorous field reconstruction
10.4.2.1 Principle of operation
10.4.2.2 Kramers–Kronig receiver-based experimental demonstrations
10.4.2.3 Discussion
10.4.3 Stokes vector receivers: polarization recovery without a local oscillator
10.4.3.1 System architecture
10.4.3.2 Receiver-side digital signal processing for stokes vector receivers
10.4.4 Kramers-Kronig Stokes receivers
10.5 The future of short-reach transmission systems
References
11 Visible-light communications and light fidelity
11.1 Introduction
11.2 An optical wireless communications taxonomy
11.3 Channel models
11.3.1 Transmitter model
11.3.2 Receiver model
11.3.3 Reflector model
11.3.4 Channel impulse response
11.3.5 Existing methods for visible-light communications channel modeling
11.3.5.1 Deterministic algorithms
11.3.5.2 Monte Carlo ray-tracing
11.3.5.3 Analytical methods
11.3.6 Results of the visible-light communications channel models
11.4 Analog optical front-end designs
11.4.1 Transmitter front end
11.4.1.1 Light-emitting diodes
11.4.1.2 Laser diodes
11.4.2 Receiver front end
11.5 Digital modulation techniques
11.5.1 Single-carrier modulation schemes
11.5.2 Multicarrier modulation
11.6 Multichannel transmission techniques
11.6.1 Multiple-input multiple-output
11.6.2 Angular diversity
11.6.3 Wavelength-division multiplexing
11.7 Multiuser access techniques
11.7.1 Optical time division multiple access
11.7.2 Optical orthogonal frequency division multiple access
11.7.3 Optical code division multiple access
11.7.4 Optical space division multiple access
11.7.5 Power-domain nonorthogonal multiple access
11.8 Networking techniques for light fidelity
11.8.1 Network deployment
11.8.2 Interference mitigation
11.8.2.1 Joint transmission
11.8.2.2 Spatial frequency reuse
11.8.2.3 Busy-burst signaling
11.8.3 Handover
11.9 Conclusions
References
12 R&D advances for quantum communication systems
12.1 Communication as transfer of information
12.1.1 Introduction to this chapter
12.1.2 Information measures
12.1.3 Channel capacity
12.2 Quantum physics for communication
12.2.1 Quantum uncertainty
12.2.2 Measurement and detectors
12.2.3 True random numbers generation
12.2.4 Entanglement and communication
12.2.4.1 No-signaling theorem
12.2.4.2 Quantum teleportation
12.2.4.3 No-cloning theorem
12.2.4.4 Quantum clock synchronization
12.2.4.5 The pursuit of superluminal heresy
12.2.5 Linear quantum amplifier basics
12.2.6 Quantum state discrimination
12.2.6.1 Minimum error discrimination
12.2.6.2 Unambiguous discrimination
12.2.7 Quantum tomography
12.3 Quantum mechanics for securing communication channels
12.3.1 Basic principles of quantum key distribution
12.3.1.1 Discrete variables quantum key distribution
12.3.1.2 Continuous variables quantum key distribution
12.3.2 Eavesdropping challenge
12.3.3 Channel loss, quantum repeaters, and quantum memory
12.3.4 Quantum error correction and privacy amplification
12.4 Modern quantum key distribution
12.4.1 Fiber-based quantum key distribution
12.4.2 Free-space quantum key distribution
12.4.3 Quantum key distribution in satellite communication
12.5 Quantum supremacy in information processing
12.5.1 Dense and superdense encoding of information
12.5.2 Quantum algorithms
12.5.3 Quantum computing
Acknowledgments
References
13 Ultralong-distance undersea transmission systems
13.1 Undersea transmission over dispersion uncompensated fibers
13.1.1 Linear and nonlinear degradations in optical fiber
13.1.2 Gaussian noise model
13.1.3 Symbol rate optimization
13.1.4 Nonlinearity compensation
13.1.4.1 Digital back propagation
13.1.4.2 Perturbation nonlinearity compensation
13.1.4.3 Nonlinearity compensation using fast adaptive filters
13.1.4.4 Other nonlinearity mitigation techniques
13.1.4.5 Combination of nonlinearity compensation techniques
13.1.5 Nonlinear transmission optimization
13.2 Increasing spectral efficiency
13.2.1 Advanced modulation formats—increasing channel data rate
13.2.2 Geometric constellation shaping
13.2.2.1 Probabilistic constellation shaping
13.2.2.2 Multidimensional coded modulation
13.2.2.3 Coded modulation with both geometric and probabilistic shaping
13.2.3 Variable spectral efficiency
13.2.3.1 Adaptive rate forward error correction
13.2.3.2 Time-domain hybrid quadrature amplitude modulation
13.2.3.3 Probabilistic constellation shaping
13.2.3.4 Coded Modulation
13.2.3.5 Fine spectral efficiency granularity with coded modulation and adaptive rate forward error correction
13.3 Increasing optical bandwidth
13.3.1 Maximizing C-band capacity
13.3.2 Moving beyond the erbium-doped fiber amplifiers C-band
13.3.3 Comparison of C+L erbium-doped fiber amplifiers and Raman amplification
13.3.4 Comparison of C+L erbium-doped fiber amplifier and C+C erbium-doped fiber amplifier
13.4 Increasing cable capacity
13.4.1 Space division multiplexing using multicore fiber
13.4.2 Space division multiplexing using multimode fiber/few-mode fiber/ coupled core multicore fiber
13.5 Increasing capacity under the constraint of electrical power
13.5.1 Optimum spectral efficiency
13.5.2 Optimizing power-efficient undersea systems
13.5.3 Techniques for power-efficient transmission
13.5.4 Space division multiplexing technologies in undersea
13.6 Open cables
13.6.1 OSNRNL, OSNReff, and GOSNR
13.6.2 System design trade-offs
13.7 System value improvements
13.7.1 Wet wavelength selective switch–based reconfigurable optical add-drop multiplexer
13.7.2 New cable types: lower cost, higher direct current resistance trade-offs
13.8 Future trends
13.9 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
List of acronyms
References
14 Intra-data center interconnects, networking, and architectures
14.1 Introduction to intra-data center interconnects, networking, and architectures
14.2 Intra-data center networks
14.2.1 Data center network growth drivers
14.2.2 Characteristics and classification of data center networks
14.2.2.1 Switch-centric topologies
14.2.2.2 Server-centric and server-switch hybrid topologies
14.2.2.3 Metrics to compare topologies
14.2.3 Traffic routing in data center networks
14.2.3.1 Addressing
14.2.3.2 Routing and forwarding
14.2.4 Network cabling
14.3 Interconnect technologies
14.3.1 Pluggable form factors
14.3.2 Direct attach cables (DAC)
14.3.3 Active optical cables
14.3.4 Optical transceivers
14.4 Development of optical transceiver technologies
14.4.1 40G technologies
14.4.2 100G technology
14.4.3 400G technology
14.5 Future development
14.5.1 Coherent detection inside data centers
14.5.2 Mid-board and copackaged optics
14.5.3 Optical switching inside data centers
References
15 Innovations in DCI transport networks
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Data-center interconnect transport networks
15.3 Data-center interconnect optimized system
15.3.1 Requirements and innovations in data-center interconnect systems
15.3.2 Wavelength-division multiplexing technology building blocks
15.3.3 Data-center interconnect open line system
15.4 Emerging data-center interconnect transport innovations
15.4.1 Software-defined network advancements
15.4.1.1 Network monitoring
15.4.2 Optical protection switching
15.4.3 Data encryption
15.4.4 Advancements in wavelength-division multiplexing digital signal processing and photonic integration
15.4.5 Constellation shaping
15.4.6 L-band, and open line-system disaggregation
15.4.7 400GE wavelength-division multiplexing ZR
15.4.8 Implications of intra-data center networking and Moore’s law
15.5 Outlook
15.5.1 Power efficient photonics-electronics integration
15.5.2 Open transport model-driven networking
15.5.3 Network analytics, optimization, and traffic engineering
15.5.4 Edge cloud evolution
Acknowledgments
References
16 Networking and routing in space-division multiplexed systems
16.1 Introduction
16.1.1 Network growth
16.1.2 Current optical networking
16.1.3 Wavelength-selective switch optical system
16.2 Spatial and spectral superchannels
16.2.1 Spatial parallelism
16.2.2 Partitioning spatial and wavelength space
16.2.3 Coupled and uncoupled modes
16.2.4 Switching and blocking considerations
16.3 Coupled mode space-division multiplexing
16.3.1 Multimode switches
16.3.2 Joint-switching architecture
16.4 Uncoupled mode space-division multiplexing
16.4.1 Uncoupled space-division multiplexing fibers
16.4.2 Transitioning to space-division multiplexing-wavelength-division multiplexed reconfigurable optical add-drop multipl...
16.4.3 Scaling space-division multiplexing switches
16.5 Future networks
16.6 Conclusions
References
17 Emerging optical communication technologies for 5G
17.1 Introduction on 5G requirements and 5G-oriented optical networks
17.1.1 Introduction to 5G requirements
17.1.2 Introduction on 5G-oriented optical networking
17.2 Optical interfaces for fronthaul, midhaul, and backhaul
17.2.1 The partition of fronthaul, midhaul, and backhaul
17.2.2 The common public radio interface
17.2.3 The evolved common public radio interface
17.3 Optical transmission technologies for X-haul
17.3.1 X-haul via direct fiber connection
17.3.2 X-haul via passive wavelength-division multiplexing connection
17.3.3 X-haul via active wavelength-division multiplexing connection
17.3.4 X-haul via bandwidth-efficient modulation formats
17.4 5G-oriented optical networks
17.4.1 Mobile-optimized optical transport network for X-haul
17.4.2 Advanced coherent transmission for high-performance optical core networks
17.4.3 Wavelength switching for low-latency optical networks
17.4.4 Mobile-optimized optical transport network for network slicing
17.4.5 High-speed low-latency passive optical network for common public radio interface/Ethernet-based common public radio ...
17.5 Industry standards and development for 5G-oriented optical networks
17.5.1 5G-oriented optical network architecture and signal structure developments
17.5.2 5G-oriented optical interface specification developments
17.5.3 The IEEE Optical Networks 2020 activity
17.6 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
18 Optical interconnection networks for high-performance systems
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Trends and challenges in computing architecture
18.2.1 Overview
18.2.1.1 The end of Moore’s law
18.2.1.2 Machine learning and data analytics
18.2.2 High performance computing—toward exascale
18.2.2.1 The memory bottleneck
18.2.2.2 Bandwidth steering
18.2.3 Data centers—scaling and resource utilization
18.2.3.1 High-bandwidth links in the data center
18.2.3.2 Resource utilization and disaggregation
18.3 Energy-efficient links
18.3.1 Anatomy of optical link architectures
18.3.2 Comb laser
18.3.3 Microring-based modulators
18.3.4 Microring-based drop filters
18.3.5 Energy-efficient photonic links
18.4 Bandwidth steering
18.4.1 Free-space optical switches
18.4.2 Photonic integrated switches
18.4.3 Network performance
18.5 Conclusions
References
19 Evolution of fiber access networks
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Evolution of passive optical networks
19.2.1 Mature passive optical network standards
19.2.1.1 Burst mode operation in time-division multiplexing-passive optical networks
19.2.1.2 Gigabit time-division-multiplexing passive optical network Standards
19.2.1.3 10Gbps time-division-multiplexing passive optical network Standards
19.2.1.4 TWDM-passive optical network standards
19.2.2 Passive optical network standards in the make
19.2.2.1 IEEE 802.3ca
19.2.2.2 FSAN and ITU-T SG15/Q2 next-generation passive optical networks
19.2.2.3 Super-passive optical network
19.3 Wavelength-division multiplexing and its challenges in access networks
19.3.1 Wavelength-division multiplexing-passive optical network and wireless fronthaul
19.3.2 TWDM-passive optical networks and their challenges
19.4 Enabling technologies on the horizon
19.4.1 Digital signal processing
19.4.2 Coherent detection
19.4.3 Integrated photonics
19.5 Conclusions
References
20 Information capacity of optical channels
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Information theory
20.2.1 Discrete-time memoryless channels
20.2.1.1 The binary symmetric channel
20.2.1.2 The additive white Gaussian noise channel
20.2.2 Discrete-time channels with memory
20.2.3 Mismatched decoding
20.2.4 Waveform channels
20.2.4.1 Band-limited channels
20.2.4.2 The band-limited additive white Gaussian noise channel
20.3 The optical fiber channel
20.3.1 The equations governing optical fiber propagation
20.3.2 The wavelength division multiplexing scenario
20.3.3 Approximated channel models
20.3.3.1 The split-step model
20.3.3.2 The Gaussian noise model
20.3.3.3 Perturbation methods and the linear time-variant model
20.4 The capacity of the optical fiber channel
20.4.1 The linear regime
20.4.2 The Gaussian achievable information rate and the nonlinear Shannon limit
20.4.2.1 The Gaussian achievable information rate
20.4.2.2 Relation to the nonlinear Shannon limit
20.4.2.3 Dependence on link parameters and configuration
20.4.3 Improved lower bounds
20.5 Future perspectives and the quest for an infinite capacity
Acknowledgments
References
21 Machine learning methods for optical communication systems and networks
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Artificial neural network and support vector machine
21.2.1 Artificial neural networks
21.2.2 Choice of activation functions
21.2.3 Choice of loss functions
21.2.4 Support vector machines
21.3 Unsupervised and reinforcement learning
21.3.1 K-means clustering
21.3.2 Expectation-maximization algorithm
21.3.3 Principal component analysis
21.3.4 Independent component analysis
21.3.5 Reinforcement learning
21.4 Deep learning techniques
21.4.1 Deep learning versus conventional machine learning
21.4.2 Deep neural networks
21.4.3 Convolutional neural networks
21.4.4 Recurrent neural networks
21.5 Applications of machine learning techniques in optical communications and networking
21.5.1 Optical performance monitoring
21.5.2 Fiber nonlinearity compensation
21.5.3 Proactive fault detection
21.5.4 Software-defined networking
21.5.5 Quality of transmission estimation
21.5.6 Physical layer design
21.6 Future role of machine learning in optical communications
21.7 Online resources for machine learning algorithms
21.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Appendix
22 Broadband radio-over-fiber technologies for next-generation wireless systems
22.1 Introduction on radio-over-fiber
22.2 Broadband optical millimeter-wave generation
22.2.1 Basic photonic up-conversion schemes
22.2.2 Simplified architecture for millimeter -wave generation
22.3 Broadband millimeter-wave detection in the radio-over-fiber system
22.4 Digital signal processing for radio-over-fiber systems
22.4.1 Principle of simplified heterodyne coherent detection based on digital intermediate-frequency down-conversion
22.4.2 Equalization algorithm of heterodyne coherent detection
22.4.2.1 Fiber chromatic dispersion compensation
22.4.2.2 Clock recovery
22.4.2.3 Polarization demultiplexing and channel dynamic equalization
22.4.2.4 Carrier recovery
22.4.3 Digital signal processing for orthogonal-frequency-division-multiplexing millimeter -wave signal detection
22.4.3.1 Discrete-Fourier-transform spread and intra-symbol frequency-domain averaging
22.4.3.2 Volterra equalizer in direct detection of orthogonal-frequency-division-multiplexing millimeter -wave signal
22.5 Broadband millimeter -wave delivery
22.5.1 Multiple-input multiple-output for millimeter-wave signal delivery
22.5.2 Multicarrier millimeter -wave signal delivery
22.5.2.1 Multiband millimeter-wave signal delivery
22.5.3 Advanced multilevel modulation
22.6 Long-distance millimeter-wave transmission in the radio-over-fiber system
22.7 Radio-frequency-transparent photonic demodulation technique applied for radio-over-fiber networks
22.8 Conclusions
Acknowledgments
References
Further reading
Index
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