دانلود کتاب PATHOLOGIC MYOPIA

فهرست مطالب :

Foreword I Foreword II Preface Contents Contributors Part I: Basic Science of Pathologic Myopia 1: Myopia: A Historical Perspective 1.1 Pre-ophthalmoscopic Historical Landmarks in Myopia 1.2 Post-ophthalmoscopic Historical Landmarks in Myopia (1851) 1.3 Modern Historical Landmarks in Myopia 1.4 Recent Historical Landmarks in Myopia References 2: Definition of Pathologic Myopia (PM) References 3: Epidemiology of Myopia, High Myopia, and Pathological Myopia 3.1 Introduction 3.2 East–West Patterns in the Prevalence of Myopia 3.3 Prevalence of High Myopia 3.4 Prevalence of Pathological Myopia 3.5 Associations of Myopia with Other Age-Related Eye Diseases 3.5.1 Age-Related Macular Degeneration (AMD) 3.5.2 Diabetic Retinopathy (DR) 3.5.3 Age-Related Cataract 3.5.4 Primary Open-Angle Glaucoma (POAG) 3.6 Environmental Risk Factors for Myopia 3.6.1 Near Work and Education 3.6.2 Screen Time 3.6.3 Time Outdoors 3.7 Answered and Unanswered Questions 3.8 Conclusions References 4: Genetics of Pathologic Myopia 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Genetic Contribution in Pathologic Myopia 4.3 Genetic Loci and Genes Associated with Complex Pathologic Myopia 4.4 Genetic Loci and Genes for Nonsyndromic Mendelian Pathologic Myopia 4.5 Genes for Syndromic Pathologic Myopia 4.5.1 Pathologic Myopia Accompanied with Ocular Diseases 4.5.2 Pathologic Myopia Accompanied with Systemic Diseases 4.6 Clinical Gene Test for Pathologic Myopia 4.7 Perspectives References 5: Public Health Impact of Pathologic Myopia 5.1 Epidemiology of Pathologic Myopia (PM) 5.1.1 Overview and Definition of PM 5.1.2 Prevalence, Incidence, and Progression of PM 5.1.3 Risk Factors of PM 5.2 Public Health Impact of PM 5.2.1 Blindness and VI Associated with PM 5.2.2 The Quality of Life (QoL) Impact of PM 5.3 Public Health Strategies to Manage the Burden of PM 5.3.1 Strategy 1: Health Promotion Programs 5.3.1.1 Myopia Prevention and Control 5.3.1.2 Public Health Education Campaigns and Regular Screening 5.3.2 Strategy 2: Provisions for Treating Complications of PM 5.3.2.1 Diagnostics 5.3.2.2 Treatment 5.3.3 Strategy 3: Low Vision Care and Rehabilitation 5.4 Future Direction and Work: Item Banking and Computerized Adaptive Testing in Myopia 5.5 Conclusion References 6: Animal Models of Experimental Myopia: Limitations and Synergies with Studies on Human Myopia 6.1 Refractive Development and Incident Myopia in Children 6.2 Experimental Myopia 6.2.1 The Basic Paradigms in Experimental Myopia 6.2.1.1 Form-Deprivation Myopia (FDM) 6.2.1.2 Lens-Induced Myopia (LIM) 6.2.1.3 How Different Are FDM and LIM? 6.2.1.4 Recovery from Experimental Myopia (REC) 6.2.1.5 Lens-Induced Hyperopia (LIH) 6.2.1.6 How Similar Are the REC and LIH Paradigms? 6.2.1.7 What Is the Best Model in Terms of Stimulus Relevance to Human Myopia? 6.2.1.8 Which Is the Best Species to Study for Relevance to Human Myopia? 6.3 Important Features of Experimental Myopia 6.3.1 Local Control and Spatial Localisation 6.3.2 Choroidal Changes 6.3.3 Summary 6.4 Synergies Between Genetic Research on Human and Experimental Myopia 6.5 Control of the Onset and Progression of Myopia 6.5.1 Control of Myopia Progression with Atropine 6.5.2 Optical Control of Myopia Progression 6.5.3 Is Peripheral Defocus Important? 6.5.4 Protective Effects of Time Outdoors 6.5.5 Changes in Scleral Metabolism 6.5.6 A Heuristic Model of Growth Control 6.6 Conclusions References 7: The Sclera and Its Role in Regulation of the Refractive State 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Development 7.3 The Structure of the Sclera 7.4 Age-Related Changes in the Sclera 7.5 Scleral Changes During Myopia Development 7.6 Regulation of Scleral Growth and/or Remodeling 7.7 Conclusions References Part II: Ocular Changes in the Development of Pathologic Myopia 8: Update on the Pathology of Pathological Myopia 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Pathological Findings in Pathological Myopia 8.2.1 Lacquer Cracks 8.2.2 Geographic Atrophy of RPE and Choroid (Diffuse Versus Patchy) 8.2.3 Posterior Staphyloma 8.2.4 CNV/Fuchs Spot 8.2.5 Retinal and Macular Hole/Schisis/Detachment 8.2.6 Myopic Configuration of the Optic Nerve Head, Including Peripapillary Changes 8.2.7 Vitreous Degeneration 8.3 Conclusion References 9: The Sclera and Induced Abnormalities in Myopia 9.1 Embryology and Development of the Sclera 9.2 Gross Scleral Anatomy of an Emmetropic Eye 9.3 Fine Anatomy of the Sclera 9.4 Mechanical Properties of the Sclera 9.5 Emmetropization and Myopization 9.6 Human Myopia 9.7 Ocular Shape 9.8 Shape Alterations Across Smaller Units of Scale 9.9 Ectasia of the Sclera and Intrascleral Cavitations Related to Emissary Openings 9.10 Irregularities of the Thinned Sclera References 10: The Choroid 10.1 The Embryology and Anatomy of the Choroid 10.1.1 Embryology 10.1.2 Choroidal Anatomy 10.2 Blood Flow Within the Choroid 10.3 The Regulation of Choroidal Blood Flow 10.4 Other Choroidal Functions 10.5 Imaging the Choroid 10.5.1 Angiography 10.5.2 Ultrasonography 10.5.3 Optical Coherence Tomography 10.5.3.1 Interferometry 10.6 Measurements and Reproducibility of Choroidal Thickness 10.7 Normal Subfoveal Choroidal Thickness 10.8 Topography of Choroidal Thickness 10.9 Imaging the Internal Structure of the Choroid 10.10 Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography 10.11 The Choroid in High Myopia 10.12 Biometric Choroidal Changes and Their Clinical Significance 10.13 Chorioretinal Atrophy in High Myopia 10.14 Intrachoroidal Cavitation 10.15 Focal Choroidal Excavation 10.16 Future Trends for Research 10.16.1 Potential Use of Choroidal Thickness in Grading Myopic Fundus Changes 10.16.2 Optical Coherence Tomography Angiography References 11: Theories of Myopization: Potential Role of a Posteriorly Expanding Bruch’s Membrane 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Sclera 11.3 Choroid 11.4 Bruch’s Membrane (BM) 11.5 Macular BM Length and Density of Retinal Pigment Epithelium Cells and Retinal Thickness in the Macular Region and Fundus Periphery 11.6 Optic Disc Size and Shape in Myopia 11.7 Process of Emmetropization References 12: The Optic Nerve Head in High Myopia/Abnormalities of the Intrapapillary and Parapapillary Region 12.1 Intrapapillary Region 12.1.1 Optic Disc 12.1.2 Neuroretinal Rim 12.1.3 Optic Cup 12.1.4 Histology of the Intrapapillary Region 12.2 Parapapillary Region 12.2.1 Parapapillary Atrophy 12.2.2 Peripapillary Border Tissue of the Choroid and Peripapillary Scleral Flange 12.2.3 Peripapillary Scleral Flange References (Further References Are Found in These Citations) 13: Vitreous Changes in Myopia 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Anatomy of the Vitreous 13.2.1 Embryology of the Vitreous [4] 13.2.1.1 Formation of Primary Vitreous (Fourth to Sixth Week; 4–13 mm Stage) 13.2.1.2 Formation of Secondary Vitreous (Sixth Week to Third Month; 13–70 mm Stage) 13.2.1.3 Late Fetal Development 13.2.2 Vitreous Development After Birth 13.2.3 Microscopic Anatomy 13.2.3.1 The Vitreous Body 13.2.4 Vitreoretinal Interface 13.2.5 Biomicroscopic Anatomy 13.2.6 Posterior Precortical Vitreous Pocket (PPVP) 13.2.6.1 Biomicroscopy of Posterior Precortical Vitreous Pocket 13.2.6.2 Optical Coherence Tomography of Posterior Precortical Vitreous Pocket 13.2.6.3 Clinical Implication of Posterior Precortical Vitreous Pocket 13.3 Age-Related Change of the Vitreous 13.3.1 Liquefaction 13.3.2 Posterior Vitreous Detachment (PVD) 13.3.3 Evolution of Vitreomacular Detachment 13.3.4 Splitting of Vitreous Cortex 13.4 Vitreous Changes in Myopic Eyes 13.4.1 Formation of Large Lacuna 13.4.2 Incomplete PVD 13.4.3 Early PVD 13.4.4 Residual Vitreous Cortex in Eyes with Complete PVD 13.5 Conclusion References 14: Ultra-widefield Imaging of Vitreous in Pathologic Myopia 14.1 Introduction: ‘In Vivo’ Widefield Vitreous Imaging 14.1.1 Ultrasonography 14.1.2 Optical Coherence Tomography 14.1.3 Prototype Widefield Optical Coherence Tomography Instrument 14.2 Ultra-widefield OCT Imaging of Vitreous in Pathologic Myopia 14.2.1 Early Posterior Vitreous Detachment 14.2.2 Asymmetrical Posterior Vitreous Detachment 14.2.3 Multiple and Multi-layered Posterior Vitreous Detachment 14.2.4 Long Strands of Posterior Vitreous 14.3 Relationship Between Posterior Vitreous and Retinal Vessels in Pathologic Myopia 14.3.1 Histology; Vitreo-vascular Interface 14.3.2 Vitreal Adhesion to Retinal Vessels 14.3.3 Paravascular Cystic Lesion, Paravascular Lamellar Hole, and Vascular Microfold 14.3.4 Relationship Between Posterior Vitreous and Macular Retinoschisis References Part III: Sequella of Pathologic Myopia and Their Potential Treatments 15: Staphyloma I 15.1 Historical Development of Ideas 15.2 Classification 15.3 Prevalence of Staphyloma 15.4 Proposed Nomenclature 15.5 Etiology 15.6 Special Problems in High Myopes That Can Be Attributed to Staphylomas 15.7 Localized Retinal Detachment Over a Staphyloma 15.8 Ocular Alignment Problems 15.9 Visual Field Abnormalities 15.10 Dome-Shaped Macula and Allied Disorders 15.11 Potential Mechanisms of Serous Detachment in Staphyloma and Dome-Shaped Macula References 16: Staphyloma II: Morphological Features of Posterior Staphyloma in Pathologic Myopia – Analysis Using 3D MRI and Ultra-widefield OCT 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Detection of Staphyloma Edges by Ultra-widefield OCT 16.2.1 Highly Myopic Eyes Without Evident Staphyloma (Fig. 16.4) 16.3 Highly Myopic Eyes with Evident Staphyloma (Figs. 16.6, 16.7, 16.8, 16.9, 16.10, 16.11, and 16.12) 16.4 Macular Staphyloma 16.5 Wide, Macular Staphyloma (Fig. 16.6) 16.6 Narrow, Macular Staphyloma (Fig. 16.8) 16.7 Inferior Staphyloma (Fig. 16.10) 16.8 Peripapillary Staphyloma (Fig. 16.11) 16.9 Nasal Staphyloma (Fig. 16.13) 16.10 Others 16.10.1 Peripapillary, Wide 16.10.2 Comments References 17: Myopic Maculopathy 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Features of Each Lesion of Myopic Maculopathy 17.2.1 Tessellated (or Tigroid) Fundus 17.2.2 Lacquer Cracks 17.2.3 Diffuse Choroidal Atrophy 17.2.4 Patchy Chorioretinal Atrophy 17.2.5 Others 17.2.5.1 Macular Lesions in Dome-Shaped Macula 17.2.6 Macular Lesions Along the Edge of Tilted Disc Syndrome 17.3 Frequency of Myopic Maculopathy 17.4 Progression of Myopic Maculopathy 17.5 Factors Correlating with the Development of Myopic Maculopathy 17.6 Future Perspective References 18: Overview of OCT-Based Classification of Macular Lesions Due to Pathologic Myopia 18.1 Introduction 18.2 META-PM Classification of Myopic Maculopathy (Table 18.1) [26] 18.2.1 The Details of META-PM and Several Supplements for Myopic Maculopathy 18.2.2 Why the OCT-Based Classification Is Needed? 18.3 OCT Features of Each Lesion of Myopic Maculopathy 18.3.1 Choroidal Thinning 18.3.2 Bruch’s Membrane Holes 18.3.3 Other Myopic Lesions (Myopic Traction Maculopathy and Dome-Shaped Macula) 18.4 Establishment of OCT-Based Classification 18.4.1 Choroidal Thickness Profile in Each Lesion 18.4.1.1 Profile in Myopic Maculopathy Is Different from Normal Fundus 18.4.1.2 Progressive Thinning from Tessellated to PDCA and to MDCA, but Not Thereafter 18.4.2 Cut-Off Value of Choroidal Thickness for Identifying PDCA and MDCA 18.5 Summary of OCT-Based Classification of Myopic Maculopathy (Table 18.2) 18.6 A Scheme Depicting the Progression Patterns of Myopic Maculopathy Combining with OCT Finding (Fig. 18.7) 18.7 Future Perspective References 19: Choroidal Neovascularization 19.1 Background 19.2 Clinical Characteristics 19.3 Potential Pathologic Mechanisms 19.4 Disease Characteristics 19.5 Treatment of Myopic Choroidal Neovascularization 19.6 Thermal Laser Photocoagulation 19.7 Laser Photocoagulation for Myopic Choroidal Neovascularization 19.8 Surgical Treatment 19.9 Photodynamic Therapy 19.10 Agents Directed Against Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor 19.11 Recommended Treatment of Eyes with Myopic Choroidal Neovascularization 19.12 Retinal Pigment Epithelial Loss and Atrophy References 20: Myopic Macular Retinoschisis 20.1 Myopic Macular Retinoschisis and Associated Lesions 20.2 Clinical Features of MRS 20.3 Diagnosis of MRS 20.4 Pathological Findings of MRS 20.5 Factors Related to MRS Development 20.6 Natural Course 20.7 Treatment for MRS 20.8 Other Types of Macular Retinal Detachments in Pathologic Myopia 20.8.1 Macular Hole Retinal Detachment (MHRD) 20.8.2 Macular RD Associated with Peripapillary Intrachoroidal Cavitation (ICC) 20.8.3 RD Caused by a Retinal Break in and Along the Macular Atrophy or Patchy Atrophy 20.9 Closing Remarks References 21: Surgical Approaches for Complications of PM 21.1 Indication for Surgery 21.1.1 Introduction and Definitions 21.1.2 Indications for Surgery 21.1.2.1 Myopic Traction Maculopathy 21.1.2.2 Full-Thickness Macular Hole 21.1.2.3 Retinal Detachment with a Macular Hole 21.2 Surgical Procedures 21.2.1 Vitrectomy 21.2.2 Posterior Hyaloid Detachment 21.2.3 Epiretinal Membrane Peeling 21.2.4 Internal Limiting Membrane Peeling 21.2.5 Other Procedures 21.3 Intraoperative and Postoperative Complications 21.3.1 Intraoperative Complications 21.3.2 Postoperative Complications 21.4 Usefulness of Intraoperative OCT References 22: Peripheral Retinal Abnormalities 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Lattice Degeneration 22.2.1 Historical Background 22.2.2 Clinical Features 22.2.3 Prevalence 22.2.4 Clinical Variants 22.2.4.1 Snail-Track Degeneration 22.2.5 Associations with Hereditary Disorders 22.2.6 Histologic Features 22.2.7 Pathogenesis 22.2.8 Evolution and Management 22.3 White-Without-Pressure 22.3.1 Clinical Features 22.3.2 Prevalence 22.3.3 Pathogenesis and Histology 22.3.4 Evolution and Prognosis 22.3.5 Associations and Variants 22.3.5.1 Associations 22.3.5.2 Dark-Without-Pressure 22.4 Pigmentary Degeneration 22.4.1 Clinical Features 22.4.2 Prevalence 22.4.3 Pathogenesis and Evolution 22.4.4 Differential Diagnosis 22.5 Paving Stone Degeneration (Cobblestone Degeneration) 22.5.1 Clinical Features 22.5.2 Prevalence 22.5.3 Histologic Features and Pathogenesis 22.5.4 Evolution 22.6 Retinal Breaks 22.6.1 Prevalence 22.7 Tractional Retinal Tears 22.7.1 Clinical Features and Classification 22.7.2 Giant Tear 22.7.3 Iatrogenic Retinal Tears 22.8 Atrophic Retinal Holes 22.9 Risk of Retinal Detachment and Prophylactic Therapy of Retinal Breaks 22.9.1 Modulation of the Risk in Myopic, Aphakic, and Fellow Eyes References 23: Retinal Detachment 23.1 Introduction 23.2 The Myopic Eye: Features Predisposing to Retinal Detachment 23.2.1 Alterations in the Myopic Vitreous Gel 23.2.2 Vitreous Liquefaction and Myopia 23.2.3 Posterior Vitreous Detachment (PVD) 23.2.4 Vitreoretinal Adhesions Associated with Peripheral Vitreoretinal Degenerative Disorders 23.2.5 Visible Vitreoretinal Adhesions 23.2.6 Invisible Vitreoretinal Adhesions 23.3 Prevention of Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in Myopia 23.3.1 Treatment of Visible Vitreoretinal Adhesions in Myopia 23.3.2 Treatment of Invisible Vitreoretinal Adhesions in Myopia 23.4 Treatment of Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in Myopia 23.4.1 Surgery for Uncomplicated Myopic RRDs with Peripheral Retinal Breaks 23.4.2 Scleral Buckling 23.4.3 Advantages 23.4.4 Disadvantages 23.4.5 Vitrectomy 23.4.6 Advantages 23.4.7 Disadvantages 23.4.8 Pneumatic Retinopexy 23.4.9 Advantages 23.4.10 Disadvantages 23.4.11 Surgery for Myopic RRDs with Posterior Retinal Breaks 23.4.12 Pneumatic Procedures for Myopic RRDs Due to Macular Holes 23.4.13 Vitrectomy for Myopic RRDs Due to Macular Holes 23.4.14 Scleral Buckling for Myopic RRDs Due to Macular Holes 23.5 Conclusions References 24: Glaucoma in Myopia 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Myopia as a Risk Factor for Open-Angle Glaucoma 24.3 Diagnosis and Monitoring of Glaucoma in Myopia: Optic Nerve Structure 24.4 Diagnosis and Monitoring of Glaucoma in Myopia: Optic Nerve Function 24.5 Treatment of Glaucoma in Myopia 24.6 Conclusions References 25: Myopic Optic Neuropathy 25.1 Embryology of the Optic Nerve 25.2 Anatomy of the Optic Nerve 25.3 Morphometric Characteristics of the Optic Disc in Normal Eyes 25.4 Optic Nerve Hypoplasia 25.5 Glaucoma 25.6 Optic Neuropathies Associated with High Myopia 25.6.1 Overview 25.7 Tilted Discs 25.8 Optic Neuropathy Associated with Optic Nerve Abnormalities That May Not Be Progressive 25.9 Optic Disc Abnormalities Associated with Generalized Expansion 25.9.1 Dilation of Perioptic Subarachnoid Space and Thinning of Peripapillary Sclera 25.9.2 Formation of Acquired Pits in the Optic Disc and Conus Regions 25.9.3 Separation of Circle of Zinn-Haller from the Optic Nerve 25.10 Eye Shape Abnormalities 25.11 Myopic Optic Neuropathy 25.12 The Need for Future Research References 26: Special Considerations for Cataract Surgery in the Face of Pathologic Myopia 26.1 Introduction 26.2 Epidemiology 26.3 Pathogenesis 26.4 Preoperative Planning 26.4.1 Axial Length and Keratometry 26.4.2 Intraocular Lens Power Calculation 26.4.3 Intraocular Lens Options 26.4.4 Expectations 26.5 Timing Considerations 26.6 Anesthesia 26.7 Surgical Considerations 26.8 Postoperative Management 26.9 Conclusion References 27: Ocular Motility Abnormalities 27.1 Highly Myopic Strabismus 27.1.1 Etiology 27.1.2 Angle of Dislocation 27.1.3 Surgical Treatment 27.1.4 Surgical Options 27.1.5 Dynamic Changes of Globe Dislocation 27.2 Myopia and Concomitant Strabismus References 28: Myopia: Ocular and Systemic Disease 28.1 Introduction 28.2 Myopia in Association with Ocular Diseases 28.2.1 High Myopia Associated with Form-Depriving Ocular Conditions 28.2.2 High Myopia Associated with Ocular Disorders of Connective Tissue 28.2.3 Other Ocular Disorders That Associate with Myopia 28.3 Myopia Associated with Systemic Diseases and Syndromes 28.4 Drug-Induced Myopia 28.4.1 Proposed Mechanisms of Drug-Induced Myopia 28.4.2 Differentiating Between Mechanisms 28.4.3 Drugs Reported to Induce Myopia 28.4.3.1 Sulfonamides 28.4.3.2 Anti-epileptics References Part IV: Treatment of Pathologic Myopia 29: Prevention of Myopia Progression in Children and Adolescents 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Emmetropization 29.3 Environmental Risk Factors for Axial Elongation 29.4 Outdoor Activities 29.5 Optical Intervention 29.5.1 Undercorrection 29.5.2 Part-Time Full Correction 29.5.3 Progressive Addition Lenses 29.5.4 Contact Lenses (CLs) 29.6 Orthokeratology 29.7 Pharmacological Interventions 29.7.1 Atropine Eye Drops 29.8 Pirenzepine 2% Gel 29.9 Conclusion References 30: Optical Methods to Slow the Progression of Myopia 30.1 Introduction 30.2 Spectacle Correction 30.3 Contact Lenses 30.4 Outside Exposure 30.5 Combined Treatment 30.6 Clinical Guidelines References 31: Sclera-Targeted Therapies for Pathologic Myopia 31.1 Scleral Reinforcement Surgery 31.2 Scleral Shortening with Scleral Resection or Scleral Folding 31.3 Scleral Strengthening 31.4 Scleral Collagen Cross-linking 31.5 Regenerative Therapy Targeting the Sclera 31.6 Closing Remarks References Index