دانلود کتاب Physics of cryogenics : an ultralow temperature phenomenon

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Cover
PHYSICS OF CRYOGENICS: AN ULTRALOW TEMPERATURE PHENOMENON
Copyright
Dedication
About the Author
Preface
Acknowledgments
1. Cryogenic Technologies
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Low Temperature in Science and Technology
1.3 Defining Cryogenic Fluids or Liquids
1.3.1 Type of Cryogenic Liquids
1.3.2 Thermophysical Properties
1.3.3 Liquid Boil-Off
1.3.4 Cryogen Use for Equipment Cool-Down
1.3.5 Phase Domains
1.3.6 Personal Protective Equipment to Be Worn
1.3.7 Handling Cryogenic Liquids
1.3.8 Storing Cryogenic Liquids
1.3.9 Hazards of Cryogenic Liquids
1.3.10 General Hazards of Cryogenic Liquids
1.4 Heat Transfer and Thermal Design
1.4.1 Solid Conduction
1.4.2 Radiation
1.4.3 Convection
1.4.4 Gas Conduction
1.4.5 Multilayer Insulation
1.4.6 Vapor Cooling of Necks and Supports
1.5 Refrigeration and Liquefaction
1.5.1 Thermodynamics of Refrigeration
1.5.2 Helium Refrigerators versus Liquefiers
1.5.3 Real Cycles and Refrigeration Equipment
1.6 Industrial Applications
1.6.1 Cryogenic Processing for Alloy Hardening
1.6.2 Cryogenic Fuels
1.6.3 Cryogenic Application in Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy
1.6.4 Cryogenic Application in Magnetic Resonance Image
1.6.5 Cryogenic Application in Electric Power Transmission Within Big Cities
1.6.6 Cryogenic Application in Frozen Food Transport
1.6.7 Cryogenic Application in Forward Looking Infrared
1.6.8 Cryogenic Application in Space
1.6.9 Cryogenic in Blood Banking, Medicine, and Surgery
1.6.10 Cryogenic in Manufacturing Process
1.6.11 Cryogenic in Recycling of Materials
1.6.12 Cryogenic Energy Storage
1.6.12.1 CES Characteristics
1.6.13 CES in Nuclear Power Plants
1.6.14 Cryogenic Application in Research
1.7 Cryogenic Fluid Management
1.7.1 Benefits
1.7.2 Research Overview
1.7.3 Right: Lightweight, High-Efficient Cryocooler
1.7.4 Background
1.7.5 Right: Liquefier Demo and Cryogenic Insulation Test Facility
1.8 Conclusion
References
Further Reading
2. Properties of Pure Substances
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Properties of Pure Substances: Phase Changes
2.2.1 Phases of Pure Substances
2.2.2 Equations of State
2.3 Ideal Gas
2.4 Real Gases and Vapors
2.4.1 Simple Real Gas Equations of State
2.4.2 Determining the Adjustable Parameters
2.4.3 Other Useful Two-Parameter Equations of State
2.4.3.1 Redlich–Kwong Equation of State
2.4.3.2 Peng–Robinson Equation of State
2.4.4 Common Equations of State With Additional Parameters
2.4.4.1 Beattie–Bridgeman Equation of State
2.4.4.2 Benedict–Webb–Rubin Equation of State
2.4.4.3 Virial Equation of State
2.4.4.4 Equation of State Comparison
2.4.5 The Liquid–Vapor Region
2.5 T−V Diagram for a Simple Compressible Substance
2.6 P−V Diagram for a Simple Compressible Substance
2.7 P−V−T Diagram for a Simple Compressible Substance
References
Further Reading
3. Mixture
3.1 Ideal Gas Mixtures
3.1.1 Avogadro\'s Number
3.1.2 Mass Fractions
3.1.3 Mole Fractions
3.1.4 Dalton\'s Law and Partial Pressures
3.1.5 Amagat\'s Law and Partial Volumes
3.2 Real Gas Mixtures
3.2.1 Pseudocritical States for Mixtures—Kay\'s Rule
3.2.2 Real Gas Equations of State
3.3 Liquid Mixtures
3.3.1 Conservation of Volumes
3.3.2 Nonconservation of Volumes and Molecular Packing
References
4. Work and Heat
4.1 Introduction of the Work and Heat
4.2 Definition of Work
4.2.1 Work Is Done by a Force as It Acts Upon a Body Moving in the Direction of the Force
4.3 Quasi-Static Processes
4.4 Quasi-Equilibrium Work due to Moving Boundary
4.5 Definition of a Cycle in Thermodynamics
4.6 Path Functions and Point or State Functions
4.7 PdV Work for Quasi-Static Process
4.8 Nonequilibrium Work
4.9 Other Work Modes
4.10 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
4.11 Definition of Energy (Thermal Energy or Internal Energy)
4.12 Definition of Heat
4.12.1 Sign Convention
4.13 Comparison of Work and Heat
References
Further Reading
5. First Law of Thermodynamics
5.1 Introduction
5.2 System and Surroundings
5.2.1 Internal Energy
5.2.2 Heat Engines
5.3 Signs for Heat and Work in Thermodynamics
5.4 Work Done During Volume Changes
5.5 Paths Between Thermodynamic States
5.6 Path Independence
5.7 Heat and Work
5.8 Heat as Energy in Transition
5.9 The First Law of Thermodynamics Applied to a Cycle
5.10 Sign Convention
5.11 Heat Is a Path Function
5.12 Energy Is a Property of a System
5.13 Energy of an Isolated System is Conserved
5.14 Internal Energy and the First Law of Thermodynamics
5.15 Internal Energy of an Ideal Gas
5.16 Introduction to Enthalpy
5.17 Latent Heat
5.18 Specific Heat
5.19 Heat Capacities of an Ideal Gas
5.20 Adiabatic Processes for an Ideal Gas
5.21 Summary
References
6. Second Law of Thermodynamics
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Heat Engines, Heat Pumps, and Refrigerators
6.3 Statements of the Second Law of Thermodynamics
6.4 Reversibility
6.5 The Carnot Engine
6.6 The Concept of Entropy
6.7 The Concept of Entropy in Ideal Gas
6.8 Entropy for an Ideal Gas With Variable Specific Heats
6.9 Entropy for Steam, Liquids, and Solids
6.10 The Inequality of Clausius
6.11 Entropy Change for an Irreversible Process
6.12 The Second Law Applied to a Control Volume
Further Reading
7. The Kinetic Theory of Gases
7.1 Kinetic Theory Basis for the Ideal Gas Law
7.2 Collisions With a Moving Wall
7.3 Real Gas Effects and Equations of State
7.4 Principle of Corresponding States
7.5 Kinetic Theory of Specific Heat
7.6 Specific Heat for Solids
7.7 Mean Free Path of Molecules in a Gas
7.8 Distribution of Mean Free Paths
7.9 Coefficient of Viscosity
7.10 Thermal Conductivity
Reference
Further Reading
8. Reversible Work, Irreversibility, and Exergy (Availability)
8.1 Reversible Work and Irreversibility
8.2 Exergy
Further Reading
9. Gas Kinetic Theory of Entropy
9.1 Some Elementary Microstate and Macrostate Models
9.2 Stirling\'s Approximation for Large Values of N
9.3 The Boltzmann Distribution Law
9.4 Estimating the Width of the Most Probable Macrostate Distribution
9.5 Estimating the Variation of W With the Total Energy
9.6 Analyzing an Approach to Thermal Equilibrium
9.7 The Physical Meaning of β
9.8 The Concept of Entropy
9.9 Partition Functions
9.10 Indistinguishable Objects
9.11 Evaluation of Partition Functions
9.12 Maxwell–Boltzmann Velocity Distribution
References
10. Thermodynamic Relations
10.1 Thermodynamic Potentials
10.2 Maxwell Relations
10.3 Clapeyron Equation
10.4 Specific Heat Relations Using the Maxwell Relations
10.5 The Difference Between the Specific Heats for a Real Gas
10.6 Joule–Thomson Coefficient
Reference
Further Reading
11. Heat Transfer
11.1 Fundamental Modes of Heat Transfer
11.2 Conduction
11.3 Convection
11.4 Radiation
11.5 Heat Conduction in a Slab
11.6 Heat Conduction in Curvilinear Geometries
11.7 Convection
11.8 Boundary Layer Concept
11.9 Dimensionless Numbers or Groups
11.10 Correlations for Common Geometries
11.11 Enhanced Heat Transfer
11.12 Pool Boiling and Forced Convection Boiling
11.13 Nucleate Boiling Regimen
11.14 Peak Heat Flux
11.15 Film Boiling Regimen
References
Further Reading
12. Heat Exchangers
12.1 Heat Exchanger Types
12.2 Classification of Heat Exchanger by Construction Type
12.2.1 Tubular Heat Exchangers
12.2.2 Plate Heat Exchangers
12.2.3 Plate Fin Heat Exchangers
12.2.4 Tube Fin Heat Exchangers
12.2.5 Regenerative Heat Exchangers
12.3 Condensers
12.4 Boilers
12.5 Classification According to Compactness
12.6 Types of Applications
12.7 Cooling Towers
12.8 Regenerators and Recuperators
12.9 Heat Exchanger Analysis: Use of the Log Mean Temperature Difference
12.10 Effectiveness-NTU Method for Heat Exchanger Design
12.10.1 Parallel Flow
12.10.2 Counterflow
12.10.3 Crossflow
12.10.3.1 Crossflow—Both Fluids Unmixed
12.10.3.2 Crossflow—One Fluid Mixed
12.10.3.3 Crossflow—Both Fluids Mixed
12.11 Special Operating Conditions
12.12 Compact Heat Exchangers
References
Further Reading
13. Gas Power and Air Cycles
13.1 Introduction
13.1.1 Open Cycle
13.1.2 Closed Cycle
13.2 Gas Compressors and the Brayton Cycle
13.3 The Nonideal Brayton Cycle
13.4 The Air Standard Cycle
Assumptions
13.5 Equivalent Air Cycle
13.6 Carnot Cycle
13.7 Otto Cycle
13.7.1 Mean Effective Pressure (MEP; Otto Cycle)
13.8 Diesel Cycle
13.8.1 Mean Effective Pressure (Diesel Cycle)
13.9 Comparison of Otto and Diesel Cycles
13.10 Dual Cycle
13.10.1 Mean Effective Pressure for a Dual Cycle
13.11 Stirling Cycle
13.12 Ericsson Cycle
13.13 Atkinson Cycle
13.14 Lenoir Cycle
13.15 Deviation of Actual Cycles from Air-Standard Cycles
13.16 Linde–Hampson Cycle
13.17 Recuperated Cycle
References
Further Reading
14. The Beginning and Concept of Cryogenics, Basic Principles
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Quick Summary of Thermodynamics Application in Science of Cryogenics
14.2.1 The First Law of Thermodynamics (You Cannot Win)
14.2.2 The Second Law of Thermodynamics (You Cannot Even Break Even)
14.2.2.1 Otto Cycle Explained
14.2.2.2 Diesel Cycle Explained
14.2.2.3 Carnot Cycle Explained
14.2.2.4 Linde–Hampson Cycle Liquefying Gases Explained
14.2.3 The Third Law of Thermodynamics (You Cannot Get Out of the Game)
14.2.4 The Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics
14.3 Heat Transfer Summary
14.3.1 Heat Generation
14.4 Momentum Transfer and Process
14.5 The Beginning of Cryogenics
14.6 Ultra Low-Temperature Refrigeration, Cryogenic State
14.7 Process of Cool Down to Cryogenic State
14.7.1 Cooling and Liquefaction of a Gas by Expansion
14.7.2 Linde–Hampson Air Liquefaction Cycle
14.7.3 The Theory of the Hampson Liquefier
14.7.3.1 Joule–Thomson Coefficient μ
14.7.3.2 Joule–Thomson Effect ρ
14.7.4 The Brayton Cycle Process
14.7.5 The Dual-Pressure Linde–Hampson Process
14.7.6 The Claude Air Liquefaction Cycle
14.7.7 The Dual-Pressure Claude Process
14.8 Technical Challenges of Cryogenic Fluids Transfer and Transportation
14.9 Containers
14.9.1 Dewars
14.9.2 Cryogenic Liquid Cylinder
14.10 Hazards Associated With Cryogenic Materials
14.11 Risk Assessment
14.11.1 Oxygen Deficiency and Asphyxiation
14.11.2 Cold Burns, Frostbite, and Hypothermia
14.11.3 Oxygen Enrichment
14.11.4 Pressurization and Explosion
14.11.5 Damage to Equipment
14.11.6 Flammable Gas—Hydrogen
14.12 General Safety Practices
14.12.1 Safety Practices
14.13 Specific Procedures
14.13.1 Refilling Dewars in Laboratories
14.14 Storage of Cryogenic Liquids
14.15 Cryogenic Storage Tanks
14.16 Emergency Procedures and First Aid
14.17 Spills and Disposal of Cryogenics
14.18 Training
References
15. Transport Properties of Solid at Cryogenic State
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Thermal Properties
15.2.1 Specific Heat
15.2.2 Thermal Conductivity
15.2.3 Thermal Expansivity
15.3 General Laws of Radiation
15.4 Emissivity, Absorptivity, and Reflectivity at Cryogenic State
15.5 Electrical Properties of Materials at Cryogenic State
15.6 Refrigeration and Liquefaction
15.6.1 Liquefaction of Helium
15.6.2 Cool Down With Liquid Nitrogen
15.7 Overall Cooling Methods
15.8 Cryocoolers
15.8.1 Stirling Cryocoolers
15.8.2 Gifford-McMahon Cryocoolers
15.9 Pulse-Tube Refrigerators
15.10 Superconductivity at a Cryogenic State
15.10.1 Superconductivity Discovery and a Fallout of Helium Liquefaction
15.11 Thermal Insulation
15.12 Terms Used in the Cryogenic Field
References
Further Reading
16. Cryogenic Equipment, Systems, and Applications
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Compression and Compressors
16.3 Expansion Process and Engines
16.4 Expansion Machine
16.4.1 Turbine Expander
16.5 Pumps and Valves
16.6 Oil Bearing System
16.7 Gas Bearing System
16.8 Cryogenic Heat Exchangers
16.9 The Right Materials in Heat Exchangers (PFHEs)
16.10 Cryogenic PFHE Packaging Options
16.10.1 Single Units
16.10.2 Manifold Assemblies
16.10.3 Cold Boxes
16.10.4 Block-in-Shell Units
16.11 Other Types of Heat Exchangere for Cryogenic Liquid Natural Gases (LNG)
16.11.1 Coil-Wound Heat Exchangers
16.12 Cryogenic Columns
16.13 Cryogenic Liquid Gas Transfer
16.13.1 Preparation
16.13.2 Transfer and Use
16.14 Cryogenic Storage Stage and Tanks
References
Appendix
A Table and Graph Compilations
Appendix
B Cryogenic Material Properties Database
B.1 INTRODUCTION
Reference
Further Reading
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
Z
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