دانلود کتاب Psychology : from inquiry to understanding

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Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Brief Contents
Contents
About Revel and the Newedition
1 Psychology and Scientific Thinking: A Framework for Everyday Life
1.1: What Is Psychology? Science Versus Intuition
Psychology and Levels of Analysis
What Makes Psychology Distinctive—and Fascinating
Why We Can’t Always Trust Our Common Sense
Naive Realism: Is Seeing Believing?
When Our Common Sense Is Right
Psychology as a Science
What Is a Scientific Theory?
Science as a Safeguard Against Bias: Protecting Us from Ourselves
Metaphysical Claims: The Boundaries of Science
Recognizing That We Might Be Wrong
1.2: Psychological Pseudoscience: Imposters of Science
The Amazing Growth of Popular Psychology
What Is Pseudoscience?
Warning Signs of Pseudoscience
Why Are We Drawn to Pseudoscience?
Mysteries of Psychological Science: Why Do We Perceive Patterns Even When They Don’t Exist?
Thinking Clearly: An Antidote Against Pseudoscience
The Dangers of Pseudoscience: Why Should We Care?
1.3: Scientific Thinking: Distinguishing Fact from Fiction
Scientific Skepticism
A Basic Framework for Scientific Thinking
Scientific Thinking Principle #1: Ruling Out Rival
Hypotheses
Scientific Thinking Principle #2: Correlation Isn’t Causation
Scientific Thinking Principle #3: Principle #3: Falsifiability
Scientific Thinking Principle #4: Replicability
Scientific Thinking Principle #5: Extraordinary Claims Require Extraordinary Evidence
Evaluating Claims Remarkable Dietary Claims
Scientific Thinking Principle #6: Occam’s Razor
1.4: Psychology’s Past and Present: What a Long, Strange Trip it’s Been
Psychology’s Early History
The Great Theoretical Frameworks of Psychology
Structuralism: The Elements of the Mind
Functionalism: Psychology Meets Darwin
Behaviorism: The Laws of Learning
Cognitivism: Opening the Black Box
Psychoanalysis: Plumbing the Depths of the Unconscious
The Multifaceted World of Modern Psychology
The Growth of a Field
Types of Psychologists: Fiction and Fact
The Great Debates of Psychology
The Nature–Nurture Debate
The Free Will–Determinism Debate
How Psychology Affects Our Lives
Applications of Psychological Research
Thinking Scientifically: It’s a Way of Life
Summary: Psychology and Scientific Thinking
2 Research Methods: Vital Safeguards Against Error
2.1: The Beauty and Necessity of Good Research Design
Why We Need Research Designs
How We Can Be Fooled: Two Modes of Thinking
2.2: Scientific Methodology: A Toolbox of Skills
Naturalistic Observation: Studying Humans “In the Wild”
Case Study Designs: Getting to Know You
Self-Report Measures and Surveys: Asking People About Themselves and Others
Random Selection: The Key to Generalizability
Evaluating Measures
Advantages and Disadvantages of Self-Report Measures
Rating Data: How Do They Rate?
Correlational Designs
Identifying When a Design Is Correlational
Correlations: A Beginner’s Guide
The Scatterplot
Illusory Correlation
Correlation Versus Causation: Jumping the Gun
Experimental Designs
What Makes a Study an Experiment: Two Components
Confounds: Sources of False Conclusions
Cause and Effect: Permission to Infer
Pitfalls in Experimental Design
Mysteries of Psychological Science: How Do
Placebos Work?
2.3: Ethical Issues in Research Design
Tuskegee: A Shameful Moral Tale
Ethical Guidelines for Human Research
Informed Consent
Debriefing: Educating Participants
Ethical Issues in Animal Research
2.4: Statistics: the Language of Psychological Research
Descriptive Statistics: What’s What?
Inferential Statistics: Testing Hypotheses
Statistical Significance
Practical Significance
How People Lie with Statistics
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
2.5: Evaluating Psychological Research
Becoming a Peer Reviewer
Study 1
Study 2
Most Reporters Aren’t Scientists: Evaluating Psychology in the Media
Evaluating Claims Hair-Loss Remedies
Summary: Research Methods
3 Biological Psychology: Bridging the Levels of Analysis
3.1: Nerve Cells: Communication Portals
Neurons: The Brain’s Communicators
The Cell Body
Dendrites
Axons and Axon Terminals
Synapses
Glial Cells
Electrifying Thought
Action Potentials
The Absolute Refractory Period
Chemical Communication: Neurotransmission
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters and Psychoactive Drugs
Neural Plasticity: How and When the Brain Changes
Neural Plasticity Over Development
Neural Plasticity and Learning
Neural Plasticity Following Injury and Degeneration
3.2: The Brain–Behavior Network
The Central Nervous System: The Command Center
The Cerebral Cortex
The Basal Ganglia
The Limbic System
The Cerebellum
The Brain Stem
The Spinal Cord
The Peripheral Nervous System
The Somatic Nervous System
The Autonomic Nervous System
3.3: The Endocrine System
The Pituitary Gland and Pituitary Hormones
The Adrenal Glands and Adrenaline
Sexual Reproductive Glands and Sex Hormones
3.4: Mapping the Mind: The Brain in Action
A Tour of Brain-Mapping Methods
Phrenology: An Incorrect Map of the Mind
Brain Damage: Understanding How the Brain Works by Seeing How It Doesn’t
Electrical Stimulation and Recording of Nervous System Activity
Brain Scans and Other Imaging Techniques
Magnetic Stimulation and Recording
How Much of Our Brain Do We Use?
Which Parts of Our Brain Do We Use for What?
Which Side of Our Brains Do We Use for What?
Psychomythology: Are Some People Left-Brained
and Others Right-Brained?
Evaluating Claims: Brain Scans in tHe Courtroom
3.5: Nature and Nurture: Did Your Genes—or Parents—Make You Do It?
How We Come to Be Who We Are
The Biological Material of Heredity
Genotype Versus Phenotype
Behavioral Adaptation
Human Brain Evolution
Behavioral Genetics: How We Study Genetic and Environmental Influences on Behavior
Heritability: Misconceptions and Conceptions
Behavioral Genetic Designs
Summary: Biological Psychology
4 Sensation and Perception: How We Sense and Conceptualize the World
4.1: Two Sides of the Coin: Sensation and Perception
Sensation: Our Senses as Detectives
Transduction: Going from the Outside World to Within
Psychophysics: Measuring the Barely Detectable
The Role of Attention
Selective Attention: How We Focus on Specific Inputs
Inattentional Blindness
The Binding Problem: Putting the Pieces Together
Mysteries of Psychological Science: How Does Magic Work?
4.2: Seeing: The Visual System
Light: The Energy of Life
The Eye: How We Represent the Visual Realm
How Light Enters the Eye
The Retina: Changing Light into Neural Activity
How We Perceive Shape and Contour
How We Perceive Color
When We Can’t See or Perceive Visually
Blindness
Blindsight: How Are Some Blind People Able to Navigate Their Worlds?
Visual Agnosia
4.3: Hearing: The Auditory System
Sound: Mechanical Vibration
Pitch
Loudness
Timbre
The Structure and Function of the Ear
When We Can’t Hear
4.4: Smell and Taste: The Sensual Senses
What Are Odors and Flavors?
Sense Receptors for Smell and Taste
Olfactory and Gustatory Perception
When We Can’t Smell or Taste
4.5: Our Body Senses: Touch, Body Position, and Balance
The Somatosensory System: Touch and Pain
Pressure, Temperature, and Injury
Specialized and Free Nerve Endings in the Skin
How We Perceive Touch and Pain
Phantom Limb Illusion
Psychomythology Psychic Healing of Chronic Pain
When We Can’t Feel Pain
Proprioception and Vestibular Sense: Body Position and Balance
Proprioceptors: Telling the Inside Story
The Vestibular Sense: A Balancing Act
Ergonomics: Human Engineering
4.6: Perception: When Our Senses Meet Our Brains
Parallel Processing: The Way Our Brain Multitasks
Perceptual Hypotheses: Guessing What’s Out There
Perceptual Sets
Perceptual Constancy
Gestalt Principles
How We Perceive Faces
How We Perceive Motion
How We Perceive Depth
How We Perceive Where Sounds Are Located
When Perception Deceives Us
Subliminal and Extrasensory Perception
Subliminal Perception and Persuasion
Extrasensory Perception (ESP): Fact or Fiction?
Evaluating Claims Packaging Subliminal Persuasion
for the Consumer
Summary: Sensation and Perception
5 Consciousness: Expanding the Boundaries of Psychological Inquiry
5.1: The Biology of Sleep
The Circadian Rhythm: The Cycle of Everyday Life
Stages of Sleep
Stage 1 Sleep
Stage 2 Sleep
Stages 3 and 4 Sleep
Stage 5: Rem Slee
Lucid Dreaming
Disorders of Sleep
Insomnia
Narcolepsy
Sleep Apnea
Night Terrors
Sleepwalking and Sexsomnia
5.2: Dreams
Freud’s Dream Protection Theory
Activation–Synthesis Theory
Dreaming and the Forebrain
Neurocognitive Perspectives on Dreaming
Evaluating Claims: Dream Interpretations
5.3: Other Alterations of Consciousness and Unusual Experiences
Hallucinations: Experiencing What Isn’t There
Out-of-Body and Near-Death Experiences
Mysteries of Psychological Science: Why Do We
Experience Déjà Vu?
Mystical Experiences
Hypnosis
Myths and Facts About Hypnosis: What Hypnosis Isn’t and What It Is
Theories of Hypnosis
Psychomythology: Age Regression and Past Lives
5.4: Drugs and Consciousness
Substance Use Disorders
Diagnosis of Substance Use Disorder
Explanations for Substance Use
Depressants
Alcohol
The Sedative-Hypnotics
Stimulants
Nicotine
Cocaine
Amphetamines
Narcotics
Psychedelics
Marijuana
LSD and Other Hallucinogens
Summary: Consciousness
6 Learning: How Nurture Changes Us
6.1: Classical Conditioning
Pavlov’s Discovery of Classical Conditioning
Principles of Classical Conditioning
Acquisition
Extinction
Spontaneous Recovery
Stimulus Generalization
Stimulus Discrimination
Higher-Order Conditioning
Applications of Classical Conditioning to Daily Life
Classical Conditioning and Advertising
The Acquisition of Fears and Phobias: The Strange Tale of Little Albert
Fetishes
Disgust Reactions
Psychomythology Are We What We Eat?
6.2: Operant Conditioning
Distinguishing Operant Conditioning from Classical Conditioning
The Law of Effect
B. F. Skinner and Reinforcement
Terminology of Operant Conditioning
Reinforcement
Punishment
Discriminative Stimulus
Same Song, Second Verse
Schedules of Reinforcement
Applications of Operant Conditioning to Daily Life
Animal Training
Overcoming Procrastination: I’ll Get to That Later
Therapeutic Applications of Operant Conditioning
Mysteries of Psychological Science: Why Are We
Superstitious?
Putting Classical and Operant Conditioning Together
6.3: Cognitive Models of Learning
S-O-R Psychology: Tossing Thinking Back into the Mix
Latent Learning
Observational Learning
Observational Learning of Aggression
Media Violence and Real-World Aggression
Mirror Neurons and Observational Learning
Insight Learning
6.4: Biological Influences on Learning
Conditioned Taste Aversions
Preparedness and Phobias
Instinctive Drift
6.5: Learning Fads: Do They Work?
Sleep-Assisted Learning
Accelerated Learning
Evaluating Claims: Study Skills Courses
Discovery Learning
Learning Styles
Summary: Learning
7 Memory: Constructing and Reconstructing Our Pasts
7.1: How Memory Operates: The Memory Assembly Line
The Paradox of Memory
When Our Memories Serve Us Well
When Our Memories Fail Us
The Reconstructive Nature of Memory
The Three Systems of Memory
Sensory Memory
Short-Term Memory
Long-Term Memory
7.2: The Three Processes of Memory
Encoding: The “Call Numbers” of the Mind
The Role of Attention
Mnemonics: Valuable Memory Aids
Psychomythology: Smart Pills
Storage: Filing Away Our Memories
The Value of Schemas
Schemas and Memory Mistakes
Evaluating Claims: Memory Boosters
Retrieval: Heading for the “Stacks”
Measuring Memory
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon
Encoding Specificity: Finding Things Where We Left Them
7.3: The Biology of Memory
The Neural Basis of Memory Storage
The Elusive Engram
Long-Term Potentiation—A Physiological Basis for Memory
Where Is Memory Stored?
Amnesia—Biological Bases of Explicit and Implicit Memory
Emotional Memory
The Biology of Memory Deterioration
7.4: The Development of Memory: Acquiring a Personal History
Memory Over Time
Infants’ Implicit Memory: Talking with Their Feet
Mysteries of Psychological Science: Why Can’t We Remember the First Few Years of Our Lives?
7.5: False Memories: When Good Memory Goes Bad
False Memories
Flashbulb Memories
Source Monitoring: Who Said That?
Implanting False Memories in the Lab
Misinformation Effect
Lost in the Mall and Other Implanted Memories
Event Plausibility
Memories of Impossible or Implausible Events
Generalizing from the Lab to the Real World
Eyewitness Testimony
The False Memory Controversy
Learning Tips: Getting the Science of Memory to Work for Us
Summary: Memory
8 Thinking, Reasoning, and Language: Getting Inside Our Talking Heads
8.1: Thinking and Reasoning
Cognitive Economy—Imposing Order on Our World
Heuristics and Biases: Double-Edged Swords
Representativeness Heuristic
Availability Heuristic
Hindsight Bias
Top-Down Processing
Concepts and Schemas
How Does Language Influence Our Thoughts?
8.2: Thinking at Its Hardest: Decision Making and Problem Solving
Decision-Making: Choices, Choices, and More Choices
Framing
Problem Solving: Accomplishing Our Goals
Approaches to Solving Problems
Obstacles to Problem Solving
Models of the Mind
8.3: How Does Language Work?
The Features of Language
Phonemes: The Ingredients
Morphemes: The Menu Items
Syntax: Putting the Meal Together
Extralinguistic Information: The Overall Dining Experience
Language Dialects: Regional and Cultural Differences in Dining Habits
How and Why Did Language Come About?
How Do Children Learn Language?
Perceiving and Producing the Sounds of Language
Learning Words
Syntactic Development: Putting It All Together
Bilingualism
Critical Periods for Language Learning
Psychomythology: Common Misconceptions About Sign Language
Theoretical Accounts of Language Acquisition
The “Pure” Nature and Nurture Accounts
The Social Pragmatics Account
The General Cognitive Processing Account
Nonhuman Animal Communication
How Animals Communicate
Teaching Human Language to Nonhuman Animals
8.4: Written Communication: Connecting Language and Reading
Reading: Learning to Recognize the Written Word
Does Speed-Reading Work?
Evaluating Claims: Speed Reading Courses
Summary: Thinking, Reasoning, and Language
9 Intelligence and IQ Testing: Controversy and Consensus
9.1: What Is Intelligence? Definitional Confusion
Intelligence as Sensory Capacity: Out of Sight, Out of Mind
Intelligence as Abstract Thinking
Intelligence as General versus Specific Abilities
Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Multiple Intelligences: Different Ways of Being Smart
Frames of Mind
The Triarchic Model
Biological Bases of Intelligence
Intelligence and Brain Structure and Function
The Location of Intelligence
Intelligence and Reaction Time
Intelligence and Memory
Pulling It All Together
9.2: Intelligence Testing: The Good, the Bad, and the Ugly
How We Calculate IQ
The Eugenics Movement: Misuses and Abuses of IQ Testing
IQ Testing Today
Commonly Used Adult IQ Tests
Commonly Used Childhood IQ Tests
Culture-Fair IQ Tests
College Admissions Tests: What Do They Measure?
College Admissions Tests and IQ
Psychomythology: Do College Admissions Tests Predict Grades?
Coaching on College Admissions Tests
Reliability of IQ Scores: Is IQ Forever?
Stability of IQ in Adulthood
Stability of IQ in Infancy and Childhood
Validity of IQ Scores: Predicting Life Outcomes
A Tale of Two Tails: From Intellectual Disability to Genius
Intellectual Disability
Genius and Exceptional Intelligence
9.3: Genetic and Environmental Influences on IQ
Exploring Genetic Influences on IQ
Family Studies
Twin Studies
Adoption Studies
Exploring Environmental Influences on IQ
Does How We Think About Intelligence Affect IQ?
Birth Order: Are Older Siblings Wiser?
Does Schooling Make Us Smarter?
Boosting IQ by Early Intervention
A Self-Fulfilling Prophecy: Expectancy Effects on IQ
Poverty and IQ: Socioeconomic and Nutritional Deprivation
Getting Smarter All the Time: The Mysterious Flynn Effect
Evaluating Claims IQ Boosters
9.4: Group Differences in IQ: The Science and the Politics
Sex Differences in IQ and Mental Abilities
Sex Differences in IQ
Sex Differences in Specific Mental Abilities
Potential Causes of Sex Differences
Racial Differences in IQ
For Whom the Bell Curve Tolls
Reconciling Racial Differences
What Are the Causes of Racial Differences in IQ?
Test Bias
Stereotype Threat
9.5: The Rest of the Story: Other Dimensions of Intellect
Creativity
Interests and Intellect
Emotional Intelligence: Is EQ as Important as IQ?
Curiosity and Grit
Mysteries of Psychological Science: Why Smart People Believe Strange Things
Wisdom
Summary: Intelligence and IQ Testing
10 Human Development: How and Why We Change
10.1: Special Considerations in Human Development
Clarifying the Nature–Nurture Debate
Gene–Environment Interaction
Nature Via Nurture
Gene Expression
The Mystique of Early Experience
Keeping an Eye on Cohort Effects
Post Hoc Fallacy
Bidirectional Influences
10.2: The Developing Body: Physical and Motor Development
Conception and Prenatal Development: From Zygote to Baby
Brain Development: 18 Days and Beyond
Obstacles to Normal Fetal Development
Infant Motor Development: How Babies Get Going
Survival Instincts: Infant Reflexes
Learning to Get Up and Go: Coordinating Movement
Factors Influencing Motor Development
Growth and Physical Development Throughout Childhood
Physical Maturation in Adolescence: The Power of Puberty
Physical Development in Adulthood
Physical Changes in Middle Adulthood
Changes in Agility and Physical Coordination with Age
Evaluating Claims Anti-Aging Treatments
10.3: The Developing Mind: Cognitive Development
Theories of Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Theory: How Children Construct Their Worlds
Vygotsky’s Theory: Social and Cultural Influences on Learning
Contemporary Theories of Cognitive Development
Cognitive Landmarks of Early Development
Physical Reasoning: Figuring Out Which Way Is Up
Concepts and Categories: Classifying the World
Self-Concept and the Concept of “Other”: Who We Are and Who We Aren’t
Psychomythology: Creating “Superbabies” One App at a Time
Numbers and Mathematics: What Counts
Cognitive Changes in Adolescence
Attitudes Toward Knowledge in Adolescents and Young Adults
Cognitive Function in Adulthood
10.4: The Developing Personality: Social and Moral Development
Social Development in Infancy and Childhood
Temperament and Social Development: Babies’ Emotional Styles
Attachment: Establishing Bonds
Influence of Parenting on Development
Self-Control: Learning to Inhibit Impulses
The Development of Gender Identity
Social and Emotional Development in Adolescence
Building an Identity
Moral Development: Knowing Right from Wrong
Life Transitions in Adulthood
Careers
Love and Commitment
Parenthood
Midlife Transitions
Social Transitions in Later Years
Summary: Human Development
11 Emotion and Motivation: What Moves Us
11.1: Theories of Emotion: What Causes Our Feelings?
Discrete Emotions Theory: Emotions as Evolved Expressions
Support for an Evolutionary Basis of Emotions
Culture and Emotion
Accompaniments of Emotional Expressions
Cognitive Theories of Emotion: Think First, Feel Later
James–Lange Theory of Emotion
Cannon–Bard Theory of Emotion
Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Putting It All Together
Unconscious Influences on Emotion
Automatic Generation of Emotion
Mere Exposure Effect
Facial Feedback Hypothesis
11.2: Nonverbal Expression of Emotion: The Eyes, Bodies, and Cultures Have It
Mysteries of Psychological Science: Why Do We Cry?
The Importance of Nonverbal Cues
Body Language and Gestures
Personal Space
Lying and Lie Detection
Humans as Lie Detectors
The Polygraph Test
Other Methods of Lie Detection
Truth Serum
11.3: Happiness and Self-Esteem: Science Confronts Pop Psychology
What Happiness Is Good For
What Makes Us Happy: Myths and Realities
Forecasting Happiness
Self-Esteem: Important or Overhyped?
The Myths of Self-Esteem
Narcissism: It’s All About Me
The Potential Benefits of Self-Esteem
Positive Psychology: Psychology’s Future or Psychology’s Fad?
11.4: Motivation: Our Wants and Needs
Motivation: A Beginner’s Guide
Drive Reduction Theory
Incentive Theories
Our Needs: Physical and Psychological Urges
Hunger, Eating, and Eating Disorders
Hunger and Eating: Regulatory Processes
Weight Gain and Obesity: Biological and Psychological Influences
Eating Disorders: Bulimia and Anorexia
Evaluating Claims Diet and Weight-Loss Plans
Sexual Motivation
Sexual Desire and Its Causes
The Physiology of the Human Sexual Response
Frequency of Sexual Activities and Aging
Sexuality and Culture
Sexual Orientation: Science and Politics
Genetic and Environmental Influences on Sexual Orientation
11.5: Attraction, Love, and Hate: The Greatest Mysteries of Them All
Social Influences on Interpersonal Attraction
Proximity: When Near Becomes Dear
Similarity: Like Attracts Like
Reciprocity: All Give and No Take Does Not a Good Relationship Make
Physical Attraction: Like It or Not, We Judge Books by Their Covers
Sex Differences in What We Find Attractive: Nature, Nurture, or Both?
Is Beauty in the Eye of the Beholder?
When Being “Just Average” Is Just Fine
Love: Science Confronts the Mysterious
Passionate Love: Love as a Hollywood Romance
Companionate Love: Love as Friendship
The Three Sides of Love
Hate: A Neglected Topic
Summary: Emotion and Motivation
12 Stress, Coping, and Health: The Mind–Body Interconnection
12.1: What Is Stress?
Stress in the Eye of the Beholder: Three Approaches
Stressors as Stimuli
Stress as a Response
Stress as a Transaction
No Two Stresses Are Created Equal: Measuring Stress
Major Life Events
Hassles: Don’t Sweat the Small Stuff
12.2: How We Adapt to Stress: Change and Challenge
The Mechanics of Stress: Selye’s General Adaptation Syndrome
The Alarm Reaction
Resistance
Exhaustion
The Diversity of Stress Responses
Fight or Flight or Tend and Befriend?
Long-Lasting Stress Reactions
12.3: Coping with Stress
Social Support
Gaining Control
Behavioral Control
Psychomythology: Are Almost All People Traumatized by Highly Aversive Events?
Cognitive Control
Decisional Control
Informational Control
Emotional Control
Is Catharsis a Good Thing?
Does Crisis Debriefing Help?
Individual Differences in Coping: Attitudes, Beliefs, and Personality
Hardiness: Challenge, Commitment, and Control
Optimism
Spirituality and Religious Involvement
Flexible Coping
Rumination: Recycling the Mental Garbage
12.4: How Stress Impacts Our Health
The Immune System
Psychoneuroimmunology: Our Bodies, Our Environments, and Our Health
Stress and Colds
Stress and Immune Function: Beyond the Common Cold
Stress-Related Illnesses: A Biopsychosocial View
Coronary Heart Disease
CHD, Everyday Experiences, and Socioeconomic Factors
12.5: Promoting Good Health—and Less Stress!
Toward a Healthy Lifestyle
Healthy Behavior #1: Stop Smoking
Healthy Behavior #2: Curb Alcohol Consumption
Healthy Behavior #3: Achieve a Healthy Weight
Healthy Behavior #4: Exercise
But Changing Lifestyles Is Easier Said Than Done
Prevention Programs
Complementary and Alternative Medicine
Evaluating Claims: Stress Reduction and Relaxation Techniques
Biologically Based Therapies: Vitamins, Herbs, and Food Supplements
Manipulative and Body-Based Methods: The Example of Chiropractic Medicine
Mind-Body Medicine: Biofeedback, Meditation, and Yoga
Energy Medicine: The Case of Acupuncture
Whole Medical Systems: The Example of Homeopathy
Placebos and CAM
CAM Treatments: To Use or Not to Use, That Is the Question
Summary: Stress, Coping, And Health
13 Social Psychology: How Others Affect Us
13.1: What Is Social Psychology?
Humans as a Social Species
Gravitating to Each Other—To a Point
The Need to Belong: Why We Form Groups
How We Came to Be This Way: Evolution and Social Behavior
Social Comparison: Where Do I Stand?
Social Contagion
Social Facilitation: From Bicyclists to Cockroaches
The Fundamental Attribution Error: The Great Lesson of Social Psychology
Mysteries of Psychological Science: Why are Yawns Contagious?
Evidence for the Fundamental Attribution Error
The Fundamental Attribution Error: Cultural Influences
13.2: Social Influence: Conformity and Obedience
Conformity: The Asch Studies
Social Influences on Conformity
Imaging Studies: Probing Further Influences
Individual, Cultural, and Gender Differences in Conformity
Deindividuation: Losing Our Typical Identities
Stanford Prison Study: Chaos in Palo Alto
Crowds: Mob Psychology in Action
Groupthink
Groupthink in the Real World
Group Polarization: Going to Extremes
Cults and Brainwashing
Obedience: The Psychology of Following Orders
Obedience: A Double-Edged Sword
Stanley Milgram: Sources of Destructive Obedience
The Milgram Paradigm
13.3: Helping and Harming Others: Prosocial Behavior and Aggression
Safety in Numbers or Danger in Numbers? Bystander Nonintervention
Three Tragic Stories of Bystander Nonintervention
Causes of Bystander Nonintervention: Why We Don’t Help
Social Loafing: With a Little Too Much Help from My Friends
Psychomythology: Is Brainstorming in Groups A Good Way to Generate Ideas?
Prosocial Behavior and Altruism
Altruism: Helping Selflessly
Helping: Situational Influences
Aggression: Why We Harm Others
Situational Influences on Aggression
Aggression: Individual, Gender, and Cultural Differences
13.4: Attitudes and Persuasion: Changing Minds
Attitudes and Behavior
When Attitudes Don’t Predict Behavior
When Attitudes Do Predict Behavior
Origins of Attitudes
Recognition
Attitudes and Personality
Attitude Change: Wait, Wait, I Just Changed My Mind
Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Alternatives to Cognitive Dissonance Theory
Persuasion: Humans as Salespeople
Routes to Persuasion
Persuasion Techniques
Characteristics of the Messenger
The Marketing of Pseudoscience
Correcting Misinformation
Evaluating Claims About Antidepressant Advertisements
13.5: Prejudice and Discrimination
Stereotypes
The Nature of Prejudice
Discrimination
Consequences of Discrimination
Creating Discrimination: Don’t Try This at Home
Roots of Prejudice: A Tangled Web
Scapegoat Hypothesis
Just-World Hypothesis
Conformity
Individual Differences in Prejudice
Prejudice “Behind the Scenes”
Combating Prejudice: Some Remedies
Robbers Cave Study
Jigsaw Classrooms
Summary: Social Psychology
14 Personality: How We Become Who We Are
14.1: Personality: What Is It and How Can We Study It?
Investigating the Causes of Personality: Overview of Twin and Adoption Studies
Reared-Together Twins: Genes or Environment?
Reared-Apart Twins: Shining a Spotlight on Genes
Adoption Studies: Further Separating Genes and Environment
Mysteries of Psychological Science: Where Is the Environmental Influence on Personality?
Behavior-Genetic Studies: A Note of Caution
14.2: Psychoanalytic Theory: The Controversial Legacy of Sigmund Freud and His Followers
Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality
The Id, Ego, and Superego: The Structure of Personality
How the Psychic Agencies Interact
Anxiety and the Defense Mechanisms
Stages of Psychosexual Development
The Oral Stage
The Anal Stage
The Phallic Stage
The Latency and Genital Stages
Psychoanalytic Theory Evaluated Scientifically
Unfalsifiability
Failed Predictions
Questionable Conception of the Unconscious
Reliance on Unrepresentative Samples
Flawed Assumption of Shared Environmental Influence
Freud’s Followers: The Neo-Freudians
Neo-Freudian Theories: Core Features
Alfred Adler: The Striving for Superiority
Carl Jung: The Collective Unconscious
Karen Horney: Feminist Psychology
Freud’s Followers Evaluated Scientifically
14.3: Behavioral and Social Learning Theories of Personality
Behavioral Views of the Causes of Personality
Behavioral Views of Determinism
Behavioral Views of Unconscious Processing
Social Learning Theories of Personality: The Causal Role of Thinking Resurrected
Social Learning Views of Determinism
Observational Learning and Personality
Sense of Perceived Control
Behavioral and Social Learning Theories Evaluated Scientifically
14.4: Humanistic Models of Personality: The Third Force
Rogers and Maslow: Self-Actualization Realized and Unrealized
Rogers’s Model of Personality
Maslow: The Characteristics of Self-Actualized People
Humanistic Models Evaluated Scientifically
14.5: Trait Models of Personality: Consistencies in Our Behavior
Identifying Traits: Factor Analysis
The Big Five Model of Personality: The Geography of the Psyche
The Big Five and Behavior
Culture and the Big Five
Alternatives to the Big Five
Basic Tendencies versus Characteristic Adaptations
Can Personality Traits Change?
Trait Models Evaluated Scientifically
Walter Mischel’s Argument: Behavioral Inconsistency
Personality Traits Reborn: Psychologists Respond to Mischel
14.6: Personality Assessment: Measuring and Mismeasuring the Psyche
Famous—and Infamous—Errors in Personality Assessment
Structured Personality Tests
MMPI and MMPI-2: Detecting Abnormal Personality
CPI: Descendent of the MMPI
Rationally/Theoretically Constructed Tests
Projective Tests
Rorschach Inkblot Test: What Might This Be?
Tat: Tell a Tale
Human Figure Drawings
Graphology
Common Pitfalls in Personality Assessment
The P. T. Barnum Effect: The Perils of Personal Validation
Personality Assessment Evaluated Scientifically
Psychomythology: How Accurate Is Criminal Profiling?
Evaluating Claims: Online Personality tests
Summary: Personality
15 Psychological Disorders: When Adaptation Breaks Down
15.1: Conceptions of Mental Illness: Yesterday and Today
What Is Mental Illness? A Deceptively Complex Question
Statistical Rarity
Subjective Distress
Impairment
Societal Disapproval
Biological Dysfunction
Historical Conceptions of Mental Illness: From Demons to Asylums
Conceptions of Mental Disorders: From the Demonic to the Medical Model
The Modern Era of Psychiatric Treatment
Psychiatric Diagnoses Across Cultures
Culture-Bound Syndromes
Cultural Universality
Special Considerations in Psychiatric Classification and Diagnosis
Psychiatric Diagnosis Today: DSM-5
Diagnostic Criteria and Decision Rules
Thinking Organic
The DSM-5: Other Features
The DSM-5: Criticisms
The Research Domain Criteria (RDoC)
Evaluating Claims: Online Tests for Mental Disorders
Normality and Abnormality: A Spectrum of Severity
Mental Illness and the Law: A Controversial Interface
Psychomythology: The Insanity Defense: Controversies and Misconceptions
15.2: Anxiety-Related Disorders: The Many Faces of Worry and Fear
Generalized Anxiety Disorder: Perpetual Worry
Panic Disorder: Terror That Comes Out of the Blue
Phobias: Irrational Fears
Agoraphobia
Specific Phobia and Social Anxiety Disorder
Posttraumatic Stress Disorder: The Enduring Effects of Experiencing Horror
Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders: Trapped in One’s Thoughts and Behaviors
Body Dysmorphic Disorder
Tourette’s Disorder
The Roots of Pathological Anxiety, Fear, and Repetitive Thoughts and Behaviors
Learning Models of Anxiety: Anxious Responses as Acquired Habits
Catastrophizing, Ambiguity, and Anxiety Sensitivity
Mysteries of Psychological Science: More than a Pack Rat: Why Do People Hoard?
Anxiety: Biological Influences
15.3: Mood Disorders and Suicide
Major Depressive Disorder: Common, But Not the Common Cold
Explanations for Major Depressive Disorder: A Tangled Web
Depression and Life Events
Interpersonal Model: Depression as a Social Disorder
Behavioral Model: Depression as a Loss of Reinforcement
Cognitive Model: Depression as a Disorder of Thinking
Learned Helplessness: Depression as a Consequence of Uncontrollable Events
Depression: The Role of Biology
Bipolar Disorder: When Mood Goes to Extremes
Suicide: Facts and Fictions
15.4: Personality and Dissociative Disorders: The Disrupted and Divided Self
Personality Disorders
Borderline Personality Disorder: Stable Instability
Psychopathic Personality: Don’t Judge a Book by Its Cover
Dissociative Disorders
Depersonalization/Derealization Disorder
Dissociative Amnesia
Dissociative Identity Disorder: Multiple Personalities, Multiple Controversies
15.5: The Enigma of Schizophrenia
Symptoms of Schizophrenia: The Shattered Mind
Delusions: Fixed False Beliefs
Hallucinations: False Perceptions
Disorganized Speech
Grossly Disorganized Behavior and Catatonia
Explanations for Schizophrenia: The Roots of a Shattered Mind
The Family and Expressed Emotion
Schizophrenia: Brain, Biochemical, and Genetic Findings
Vulnerability to Schizophrenia: Diathesis-Stress Models
15.6: Childhood Disorders: Recent Controversies
Autism Spectrum Disorders
Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder and Early-Onset Bipolar Disorder
Symptoms of ADHD
The Controversy over Early-Onset Bipolar Disorder
Summary: Psychological Disorders
16 Psychological and Biological Treatments: Helping People Change
16.1: Psychotherapy: Clients and Practitioners
Who Seeks and Benefits From Treatment?
Gender, Ethnic, and Cultural Differences in Entering Treatment
Reaping Benefits from Treatment
Who Practices Psychotherapy
Professionals Versus Paraprofessionals
Meeting the Needs for Psychological Services: How Well Are We Doing?
What Does It Take to Be an Effective Psychotherapist
16.2: Insight Therapies: Acquiring Understanding
Psychoanalytic and Psychodynamic Therapies: Freud’s Legacy
Psychoanalysis: Key Ingredients
Developments in Psychoanalysis: The Neofreudian Tradition
Humanistic Therapies: Achieving Our Potential
Personcentered Therapy: Attaining Acceptance
Gestalt Therapy: Becoming Whole
Existential Therapy
Humanistic Therapies Evaluated Scientifically
16.3: Group Therapies: The More the Merrier
Alcoholics Anonymous
Controlled Drinking and Relapse Prevention
Family Therapies: Treating the Dysfunctional Family System
Strategic Family Therapy
Structural Family Therapy
16.4: Behavioral and Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches: Changing Maladaptive Actions and Thoughts
Systematic Desensitization and Exposure Therapies: Learning Principles in Action
How Desensitization Works: One Step at a Time
Flooding and Virtual Reality Exposure
Exposure: Fringe and Fad Techniques
Modeling in Therapy: Learning by Watching
Assertion Training
Behavioral Rehearsal
Operant and Classical Conditioning Procedures
Cognitive-Behavioral and Third-Wave Therapies: Learning to Think and Act Differently
The ABCs of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy
Other Cognitive-Behavioral Approaches
Acceptance: The Third Wave of Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy
CBT and Third-Wave Approaches Evaluated Scientifically
16.5: Is Psychotherapy Effective?
The Dodo Bird Verdict: Alive or Extinct?
How Different Groups of People Respond to Psychotherapy
Psychomythology: Are Self-Help Books Always Helpful?
Nonspecific Factors
Empirically Supported Treatments
Mysteries of Psychological Science: Why Can Ineffective Therapies Appear to Be Helpful? How We Can Be Fooled
16.6 Biomedical Treatments: Medications, Electrical Stimulation, and Surgery
Evaluating Claims: Psychotherapies
Psychopharmacotherapy: Targeting Brain Chemistry
Cautions to Consider: Dosage and Side Effects
Evaluating Psychopharmacotherapy
Electrical Stimulation: Conceptions and Misconceptions
Electroconvulsive Therapy: Fact and Fiction
Transcranial Stimulation
Psychosurgery: An Absolute Last Resort
Summary: Psychological and Biological Treatments
Glossary
References
Name Index
Subject Index
Credits