دانلود کتاب Renewable Fuels

فهرست مطالب :

Cover
Title Page
Copyright Page
Dedication
Foreword
Preface
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Renewable Fuels
1.2.1 General Introduction to Renewable Fuels
1.2.2 Examples of Primary Renewable Fuels
1.2.3 Availability of Forest Wastes for Bioenergy Production
1.2.4 Controlled Biomass Utilization—A Fire-preventing Measure
1.2.5 Examples of Biomass Production by Some Trees
1.2.6 Alternative Uses of Lignocellulosic Biomass
1.2.7 Secondary Renewable fuels/Second-generation Fuels
1.2.8 Sorghum Stalks as a Source for Secondary Fuel
1.2.9 Savings in Greenhouse Gas Emissions due to the use of Biofuels
1.2.10 Various Secondary Biofuel Production Routes from Plant Sources
1.2.11 R&D Efforts for Producing Second-generation Fuels
1.3 Life Cycle Analysis of Greenhouse Gas Emissions
1.3.1 Comparison of Life Cycle GHG Emissions of Renewable Fuels with Petroleum Fuels
1.3.2 Impact of Substituting Biodiesel for Petroleum Diesel
1.3.3 Biodiesel is Better for Human Health than Petroleum Diesel
1.3.4 Impact of Biodiesel on Mitigating Global Warming
1.3.5 Biofuel Policy and Renewable Fuel Standard
1.4 Heat Content of Renewable Fuels
1.5 Hybrid Fuels
1.6 Gas from Oceans and Coal Mines
1.7 Biomass as Fuel
1.7.1 Problems in the Use of Biomass as Fuel
1.7.2 Co-firing of Biomass and Coal
1.7.3 Typical Example of Utilization of Rice Husk in the Rice Industry
1.7.4 Municipal Solid Waste as a Renewable Fuel Resource
1.8 Plastic Waste as a Source of Renewable Fuel
1.9 Sewage and Industrial Liquid Waste as a Source of Renewable Fuel
1.10 Summary
Annexure-A
Questions
References
2. Wood—A Primary Energy Source
2.1 Energy Plantations—Features and Land Availability
2.1.1 General
2.1.2 Land Availability for Plantations
2.1.3 Measures Required for Giving Thrust to Plantations
2.1.4 Sustainable Management of Soil
2.1.5 Biofertilizers and Compost: Advantages of their Use
2.1.6 PGPR as a Natural Alternative to Chemical Fertilizer
2.1.7 Sewage Water Utilization for Plant
2.1.8 Restoration of Landfills for Plantations
2.2 Tree Plantation
2.2.1 Fast-growing Trees
2.2.2 Good Firewood Plants
2.2.3 Plantation on Alkaline/Sodic Lands—Soil Alkalinity/Sodicity
2.2.4 Methods for Rehabilitating Sodic Lands and Plantations
2.2.5 Plantation in Acidic Soils/Podsol Areas
2.2.6 Trees Suitable for Saline Lands with Adequate Moisture Content in Hot Climates (Inhospitable Soils and Climates)
2.2.7 Trees Grasses and Shrubs Suited to Saline Soils in Temperate Zones
2.2.8 Some Common Plants that Grow on Salt-affected Soils in Temperate Zones
2.2.9 Plants for Hot Arid and Semiarid Regions
2.2.10 Temperate Zone Desert Vege
2.2.11 Plants for Dusty Areas in Hot Climates
2.2.12 Trees Suited to Tropical/Subtropical Climates and the Monsoon Climate in Asia
2.3 Agroforestry
2.3.1 Advantages of Agroforestry
2.3.2 Agroforestry in Hot Arid and Hot Semi-arid Areas
2.3.3 Agroforestry Practice in Temperate Climate Countries—Some Examples
2.3.4 Agroforestry Strategy in the Developing Countries of Asia/Africa/South America
2.3.5 Increase in Soil Fertility by Agroforestry
2.4 Plantation In Mined-Out Areas
2.5 General Essential Provisions in Forest Policies for Sustainable Growth
2.5.1 Basic Objectives of Forest Policy
2.5.2 Essentials of Forest Management
2.5.3 Afforestation, Social Forestry, & Farm Forestry Programs
2.5.4 Diversion of Forest Lands for Non-forest purposes
2.5.5 Forest-based Industries
2.6 Plant Tissue Culture
2.7 Rainwater Harvesting and Watershed Management for Benefit of Plantations
2.8 Bioremediation and Phytoremediation of Soil
2.8.1 Technique and Processes
2.8.2 Bioremediation of Petroleum Polluted Soil
2.8.3 Some Examples of Remediation of Polluted Soils/Land
2.9 Summary
Annexure-B
Questions
References
3. Alcohols
3.1 Alcohols and their Sources
3.2 Ethanol from Sugarcane Molasses
3.3 Ethanol from Food Crops
3.4 Biomass to Alcohol
3.4.1 Lignocellulosic
3.4.2 Production of Ethanol from Biomass
3.5 Dehydration of Ethanol
3.5.1 Drying of Ethanol Using Lime or a Hygroscopic Material
3.5.2 Membrane Separation, Pervaporation, Vapor Permeation
3.6 Developments in Fermentation Technologies for Converting Cellulose to Alcohol
3.6.1 Degradation of Cellulosic Materials
3.6.2 Fermentation of Cellulosic Material
3.6.3 Consolidation of the Bioprocessing Steps for Biomass to Ethanol
3.6.4 Conversion of Woody Matter to Alcohol by the Enzymes of Some Organisms
3.6.5 Ethanol from Seaweed
3.7 Bioethanol from Organic Wastes via the Gasification Route
3.8 Use of Ethanol as a Fuel for Motor Vehicles
3.9 Commercialization of Ethanol Production from Lignocellulosic Materials
3.10 Biobutanol as Fuel for Vehicles
3.11 Butanol Production from Plant-Based Materials
3.11.1 Process of Production of Bio
3.11.2 Methods for Removal of Butanol from Fermentation Broth
3.11.3 Some Researches Regarding Biobutanol Production
3.12 Synthesis of Butanol from Bioethanol
3.13 Summary
Questions
References
4. Biodiesel from Vegetable Oils
4.1 Biodiesel
4.2 Transesterification
4.3 Extraction of Oil from various Seeds
4.4 Biodiesel Production from Oils/Fats
4.4.1 Base-catalyzed Transesterification
4.4.2 Acid Catalysis of Transesterification
4.4.3 Use of ‘Ultra and High-shear In-line Mixer’ in Batch Reactors
4.4.4 Reactors with Ultrasonic Devices
4.4.5 Use of Microwave Heating in the Transesterification Reaction
4.4.6 Enzymatic Transesterification Using Lipases as a Catalyst
4.4.7 Use of a Heterogeneous Catalyst in Transesterification
4.4.8 Reactive Extraction of Biodiesel from Oilseed
4.4.9 Catalyst-free Supercritical Process
4.5 Properties of Biodies
4.6 Problems to be Addressed before the use of Biodiesel
4.6.1 Compatibility of Materials with Biodiesel
4.6.2 Gelling Property of Biodiesel
4.6.3 Contamination of Biodiesel by Water
4.6.4 Storage of Biodiesel
4.6.5 Operating Existing Diesel Engines with Biodiesel
4.7 Tree-Borne Oilseeds (TBO
4.8 Use of Nonedible Oils for Manufacturing Biodiesel
4.9 Biodiesel and Jatropha Plantations in Developing Countries
4.10 Advantages of Jatropha Plantations for Biodiesel and the Resulting Carbon Sinks
4.11 Biodiesel from Edible Oils
4.12 Summary
Questions
References
5. Oil/Biodiesel from Algae, Fungi, and Lignocellulosic Biomass and Emerging Alternate Fuels
5.1 Oil From Algae
5.1.1 Importance of Algae
5.1.2 Oil Content of Algae
5.1.3 Algae Growth Param
5.1.4 Algae Growth Dynamics
5.1.5 Growing Algae for Oil
5.1.6 Main Obstacles in Producing Oil from Algae
5.1.7 Processing of Algal Oil into Biodiesel
5.1.8 Advantages of Biodiesel from Algal Oil
5.2 Growing Algae in Open Waters/Ponds
5.3 Photobioreactors (PBR) for Algae
5.4 Technological Developments in Algae Production–Examples
5.5 Extraction of Oil and other Products from Algae
5.5.1 Mechanical Extraction of Oil from Algae
5.5.2 Solvent Extraction of Oil from Algae
5.5.3 Gasification Method of Oil Extraction from Algae
5.5.4 Enzymatic Extraction of Oil from Algae
5.5.5 Use of Supercritical CO2 for Oil Extraction from Algae
5.5.6 Production of Co-Products from Algae for the Economic Viability of Algal Oil
5.6 New Technologies for Obtaining Algal Oil
5.6.1 Technology for Breaking down Algae Cell Walls for Oil Extraction
5.6.2 Technology Developed by Originoil Inc. for Algal Oil
5.6.3 New Technique for Harvesting Self-flocculating Microalgae
5.6.4 Development of Polymeric Composites for Harvesting Algae
5.6.5 Enhancing Lipid Content of Algae by Nutrient Limitations
5.6.6 Effect of pH, Light Intensity, and Phosphate on Algal Biomass and Lipid Content
5.7 Fungi as a Source of Oil
5.7.1 Fungi oil
5.7.2 Conditions for Increase in the Oil Content of Fungi
5.7.3 Lipid Content of Some Fungi of the Ascomycetes Class
5.7.4 Fungal Oil Extraction and Conversion to Biodiesel
5.8 Liquid Fuel from Lignocellulosic Material by the Biochemical Route
5.9 Liquid Fuel from Lignocellulosic Biomass through the Gasification Route
5.9.1 Fischer-Tropsch (FT) Process for Converting Syngas to Liquid Fuels
5.9.2 Chemistry of the Fischer-Tropsch (FT) Process
5.9.3 Liquid Fuel from Biomass by Fast Pyrolysis
5.9.4 Direct Thermochemical Liquefaction of Algal Biomass
5.9.5 Algal Biomass to Liquid Fuel Using Catalytic Agents (Algal Hydrogenation)
5.9.6 Renewable Diesel from Lignocellulosic Materials through Gasification Route by Choren Industries, Germany
5.10 Conversion of Lignocellulosic Biomass into Alcohols and Furans/Other Chemicals/Fuels
5.10.1 Methanol and Mixed Alcohols from Biomass
5.10.2 Renewable Gasoline from Biomass
5.10.3 Furans from Biomass
5.10.4 Non-Enzymatic Conversion Process of Lignocellulosic Biomass to Furans
5.11 Dimethyl Ether (DME)
5.11.1 Properties of DME
5.11.2 Characteristics of DME as a Fuel
5.11.3 Advantages and Limitations Regarding DME Application as a Fuel
5.11.4 Environmental Friendliness of DME
5.11.5 Blending of DME in Diesel for Use in Vehicles
5.11.6 Principle of Production of DME from Lignocellulosic Materials
5.12 Emerging Alternative Fuels
5.12.1 Biobutanol
5.12.2 Methanol and Fuels Blended with Alcohols
5.12.3 Renewable Hydrocarbon Biofuels and Dimethyl Ether
5.12.4 Advantages of Renewable Hydrocarbon Biofuels
5.12.5 Comparison of Fuel Properties: Renewable Diesel vs. Other Diesels
5.13 Summary
Questions
References
6. Methane and Biogas
6.1 Sources of Methane
6.1.1 Sources and Uses of Biogas
6.1.2 Environmental Benefits of Biogas Recovery and Use
6.1.3 Safety Precautions and Dangers in Biogas Generation and Handling
6.2 Biogas Production by Biological Decomposition of Biomass
6.2.1 Rich Feedstocks for the Generation of Biogas
6.2.2 Factors Affecting Biodigestion and Biogas Generation
6.2.3 Effect of Presence of Metals on Biogas Production
6.3 Biogas from Industrial Wastewaters with a High Organic Load
6.4 Kinetics of Anaerobic Fermentation
6.5 Chemistry of Biogas Production from Organic Wastes
6.6 Methanization Ba
6.7 Types of Biogas Plants
6.7.1 Classification of Biogas Plants According to Process
6.7.2 Typical Methanization Reactor for Sewage and Industrial Sludge
6.7.3 Various Constructional Models of Biogas Plants
6.8 Biogas from Sewage/Wastewaters
6.9 Biogas from ‘Distillery Spent Wash’ by ‘Degremont’s Anapulse Technology’
6.10 Landfill Gas
6.10.1 Mechanism of Generation of Biogas in Landfills
6.10.2 Factors Affecting Gas Generation in Landfills
6.10.3 Migration of Landfill Gas
6.10.4 Process of Landfill Gas Recovery
6.10.5 Models for Pre-estimation of Landfill Gas Production
6.11 Conversion of Carbon Dioxide into Methane
6.11.1 Conversion of CO2 to CH4 by Microorganisms
6.11.2 Photocatalytic Conversion of CO2 into Methane
6.12 Upgradation of Biogas/Landfill Gas
6.13 Pyrolysis of Wastes
6.13.1 Process of Pyrolysis
6.13.2 Wood Pyrolysis
6.14 Thermal Gasification Technology for Lignocellulosic Agricultural or Forest Wastes
6.14.1 Chemical Reaction in Gasification
6.14.2 Types of Gasifiers
6.14.3 Effects of Gasifier Feedstock Characteristics
6.14.4 Generation of Dioxins/PAHs and other Pollutants during Gasification and Cleaning
6.14.5 Requirements of Syngas Quality
6.14.6 Research and Developments in Biomass Gasification
A. Gas and Tar Cracking
B. Advanced Gasification by Plasma Torches
C. Flash Pyrolysis
6.14.7 Suitability of Producer Gas for Gas Engines
6.15 Conversion of ‘Biomass Gasifier Exit Gases’ to Methanol, Methane, or other Chemicals
6.16 Methane Recovery from Gas Hydrates
6.16.1 Gas Hydrates
6.16.2 Discoveries and Estimates of Methane Hydrates
6.16.3 Reports of Methane Extraction from Hydrates
6.16.4 Method of Extraction of Methane from Methane Hydrates
6.17 Coal Bed Methane
6.18 Gas to Liquid Fuel (GTL)
6.18.1 Advantage of Converting Upgraded Biogas to Liquid Fuel for Use in Vehicles
6.18.2 Gas to Liquid (GTL) fuel conversion Process Technology
6.18.3 Proprietary GTL Processes
6.19 Summary
Questions
References
7. Hydrogen as a Renewable Fuel
7.1 Properties of Hydrogen
7.1.1 Hydrogen Fires
7.1.2 Generation of Electrostatic Charge in Hydrogen
7.1.3 Asphyxiation due to Hydrogen Leak
7.1.4 Comparative Properties of Hydrogen and Methane
7.1.5 Safety Characteristics of Hydrogen, Methane, and Gasoline
7.1.6 Safety Management of Hydrogen
7.2 Use of Hydrogen in Transport Vehicles
7.3 Production of Hydrogen
7.4 Hydrogen from Water by Electrolysis
7.4.1 Standard Electrolysis
7.4.2 High-pressure Electrolysis
7.4.3 Proton Exchange Membrane Water Electrolysis
7.4.4 High-temperature Electrolysis
7.4.5 Hydrogen Production by Biocatalyzed Electrolysis
7.4.6 Chemical-assisted Water Electrolysis
7.5 Solar Photolysis for Hydrogen Production
7.5.1 Photoelectrochemical (PEC) Production of Hydrogen
7.5.2 Photobiological Method of Hydrogen Production
7.5.3 Photoelectrocatalytic Production of Hydrogen
7.6 Thermolysis of Water—Thermochemical Production of Hydrogen
7.6.1 Hydrogen from Gas-cooled Nuclear Reactors
7.6.2 Hydrogen by Solar Thermolysis
7.7 Biomass Conversion to Hydrogen
7.8 Hydrogen Production from Biomass through the Gasification Route
7.8.1 Thermal Gasification of Biomass
7.8.2 Gasification of Biomass by ‘Supercritical Water’
7.8.3 Thermochemical Method—Fast Pyrolysis
7.8.4 Advanced Gasification by Breaking down the Wastes by Plasma Torches
7.9 Hydrogen from Glycerol
7.10 Hydrogen Production from Biomass Gasification by Disposal of Emitted CO2
7.11 Initial Conversion of Lignocellulosic Materials to Alcohols and then to Hydrogen
7.12 Hydrogen Production from Biomass through Biological Fermentation
7.13 Hydrogen Production from Fossil Fuels
7.13.1 Steam Methane Reforming
7.13.2 Methane Pyrolysis
7.13.3 Partial Oxidation of Natural Gas or Hydrocarbons
7.13.4 Plasma Reforming of Liquid Hydrocarbons
7.13.5 Coal Gasification
7.13.6 Petroleum Coke
7.14 Brief Summary of Hydrogen Production Methods
7.15 Hydrogen Separation
7.15.1 Separation by Adsorption (PSA)
7.15.2 Recovery of CO2 from Syngas Leaving H2 with a Small Amount of Impurities
7.15.3 Purification of Hydrogen by Membrane Separation
7.15.4 Types of Membranes
7.16 Hydrogen Storage
7.16.1 General Problems in Storage of Hydrogen
7.16.2 Chemical Storage of Hydrogen
7.16.3 Underground Storage of Hydrogen
7.17 Greenhouse-Gas-Neutral Fuel from Hydrogen
7.17.1 Greenhouse-gas-neutral Alcohol
7.17.2 Synthetic Methane Production from Hydrogen
7.18 Hydrogen Infrastructure
7.19 Hydrogen Leak Detection and Pipeline Integrity Monitoring
7.19.1 Hydrogen Detectors/Sensors for Leak Detection
7.19.2 Development of Suitable Composite Materials for Hydrogen Pipes
7.19.3 Pipeline Integrity Monitoring
7.20 Application of Hydrogen as a Fuel
7.20.1 Use of Hydrogen as a Fuel for ‘Fuel Cell’ Applications
7.20.2 Various Types of Fuel Cells
7.20.3 Power Generation by H2 through Fuel Cells—Some Examples
7.20.4 Challenges to be Addressed for Hydrogen Use
7.21 Environmental Concerns in Hydrogen Production, Storage, and Use
7.22 Hypthane—A Hybrid Fuel
7.23 The Future of Hydrogen and Recommendations
7.23.1 Hydrogen Can Help Tackle Various Critical Energy Challenges
7.23.2 Key Recommendations of IEA to Scale up Hydrogen
7.23.3 Increasing Global Spending on Hydrogen Energy
7.23.4 Hydrogen’s Status as a Future Fuel may be in Doubt
7.24 Summary
Questions
References
Subject Index
About the Authors