دانلود کتاب Research Methods for Medical Graduates

فهرست مطالب :

Cover
Half Title
Title Page
Copyright Page
Table of contents
Preface
Author
1 Basics of Medical Research
1.1 What Is Medical Research?
1.1.1 Medical Research and Empiricism
1.1.2 Types of Medical Research and the Scope of This Book
Primary and Secondary Research
Interdisciplinary Research
Translational Research
1.1.3 Levels of Medical Research
Graduate Thesis
Research at Higher Level
1.2 Uncertainties in Medical Research
1.2.1 Epistemic Uncertainties
Inadequate Knowledge
Incomplete Information on the Patient
Imperfect Tools
Chance Variability
Epistemic Gaps in Research Results
Statistical Models
1.2.2 Aleatory Uncertainties
1.2.3 Managing Uncertainties in Empirical Medical Research
1.3 Broad Steps in Medical Research
1.3.1 Pre-Investigation Steps
Identify the Problem
Collect and Evaluate Existing Information
Formulate Research Objectives and Hypotheses
Identify the Study Subjects
Think of a Design
Develop the Tools
Choose the Sampling Plan and Decide about the Sample Size
Write the Protocol
1.3.2 Investigation Steps
Pretest and Do the Pilot Study
Collect the Data
Handle the Nonresponse and Ethical Issues
Scrutinize the Data
1.3.3 Post-Investigation Steps
Analyze the Data
Interpret the Results
Write and Disseminate the Report
Monitor the Reactions
1.4 Quality of Medical Research
1.4.1 What Qualifies Good Research?
1.4.2 Quality of a Good Researcher
1.4.3 Pleasures and Frustrations of Medical Research
Errors in Research
Fruits of Medical Research
References
2 The Topic of Medical Research
2.1 Selection of the Topic of Research
2.1.1 What Is a Problem?
Choosing a Problem for Research
Choosing a Thesis Topic
Statement of the Problem
2.1.2 Review of Literature and Databases, and Their Critique
Searching Medical Literature
Critique of a Medical Report
Searching the Existing Data
Cautions in Using Secondary Data
2.2 Feasibility and Resources
2.2.1 Ethical Considerations
Helsinki Declaration
Informed Consent
2.2.2 Resources
Availability of Subjects
Access to Facilities
2.3 Objectives and Hypotheses
2.3.1 Broad and Specific Objectives
2.3.2 Hypotheses
References
3 Study Designs: An Overview
3.1 What Is a Design of an Empirical Study?
3.1.1 Elements of a Design
3.1.2 Types of Designs
3.2 Descriptive Studies
3.2.1 Sample Surveys and Their Designs
3.2.2 Case Studies and Case Series
Case Studies
Case Series
3.2.3 Census
3.3 Analytical Studies
3.3.1 Choice of Strategy for Analytical Studies
3.3.2 Some Useful Terms and Concepts for Analytical Studies
Antecedent and Outcome
Interaction
Confounding
3.4 Essentials of Intervention Studies
3.4.1 Medical Experiments
3.4.2 Clinical Trials
3.5 Essentials of Observational Studies
3.5.1 Prospective Studies
3.5.2 Retrospective Studies
3.5.3 Cross-Sectional Studies
3.6 Reliability and Validity of Designs, and Biases
3.6.1 Reliability of a Design
3.6.3 Biases in Medical Studies and Their Control
3.7 Where to Use Which Design?
References
4 Clinical Trials
4.1 Types of Clinical Trials
4.1.1 Therapeutic Trials – Efficacy and Safety
4.1.2 Clinical Trials for Diagnostic and Prophylactic Modalities
4.1.3 Field Trials for Screening, Prophylaxis, and Vaccines
4.1.5 Other Types of Clinical Trials
4.2 Basics of Clinical Trials
4.2.2 Phases of a Clinical Trial
4.2.3 Randomization and Matching
4.3 Validity of a Clinical Trial
4.3.1 Selection of Participants
4.3.2 Blinding, Concealment of Allocation, and Masking
4.3.4 Uncertainties in Clinical Trials
References
5 Observational Studies
5.1 Prospective Studies
5.1.1 Subjects in a Prospective Study
5.1.5 Repeated Measures Studies
5.2 Retrospective Studies
5.2.1 Case–Control Design
5.3 Cross-Sectional Studies
5.4 Comparative Performance of Prospective, Retrospective, and Cross-Sectional Studies
References
6 Assessment of Medical Factors
6.1 Intricacies of Assessment
6.2 Types of Medical Factors
6.2.1 Distal and Proximal Factors
6.3 Assessment of Mortality, Duration, and Quality of Life
6.3.2 Quality of Life and Duration
References
7 Methodology of Data Collection
7.1 Types of Measurements
7.1.1 Nominal, Metric, and Ordinal Measurements
7.1.2 Other Types of Scales for Measurement
7.2 Tools of Data Collection
7.2.1 Questionnaires, Schedules, and Proforma
Questionnaires
Structured Questionnaire
Schedules and Proforma
7.2.2 Interview, Examination, and Investigation
Interview
Physical Examination
Investigation
7.3 Quality of Data
7.3.1 Errors in Medical Data
Medical Errors
Errors in Measurements
7.3.2 Reliability, Validity, and Accuracy of Data
Reliability and Validity of Data
Accuracy of Measurements and Recording
7.3.3 Other Aspects of Data Quality
Completeness
Training and Supervision
7.4 Validity of the Tools
7.4.1 Pilot Study and Pretesting
Pilot Study
Pretesting of Tools
7.4.2 Sensitivity and Specificity of Medical Tests
7.4.3 ROC Curves and Youden Index
7.4.4 Predictivities and Prevalence
Two Types of Predictivity
Bayes’ Rule
Where to Use Which Test
References
8 Sampling and Sample Size
8.1 Sampling Methods and Sampling for Descriptive Studies
8.1.1 Purposive Sampling (Nonrandom Methods)
8.1.2 Random Sampling
Simple Random Sampling
Stratified Random Sampling
Systematic Random Sampling
Cluster Random Sampling
Multistage Random Sampling
Probability Proportional to Size Sampling
Other Methods of Random Sampling
8.2 Sampling for Analytical Studies
8.2.1 Sampling Methods in Observational Studies
Sampling Methods for Cross-Sectional Studies
Sampling Methods for Prospective and Retrospective Studies
8.2.2 Sampling Methods in Clinical Trials
8.3 Sampling and Nonsampling Errors
8.3.1 Sampling Errors
Point Estimate
Standard Error of an Estimate
8.3.2 Nonsampling Errors
Biases
Nonresponse
Wrong Assessment
8.4 Sample Size
8.4.1 Sample Size for Descriptive Studies
8.4.2 Sample Size for Analytical Studies and Clinical Trials
Sample Size for Estimation of Efficacy
Sample Size for Estimation of Relative Risk or Odds Ratio
Sample Size for Testing of a Hypothesis
Additional Considerations for Determining the Sample Size
Rules of Thumb
References
9 Research Protocol
9.1 Structure of the Protocol
9.1.1 Title, Researchers, Supervisors, and Collaborators
Title
The Researcher
Supervisors and Collaborators
9.1.2 Executive Summary
9.1.3 Main Body of the Protocol
9.1.4 Logistics and Appendices
Funding and Training
Compliance with Regulations
Development of Data Collection Forms and Ethics
Appendices
9.2 Main Body of the Protocol
9.2.1 Specifics of the Content of the Main Body of the Protocol
Introduction
Review of Literature
Objectives and Hypotheses
Methodology
Data Analysis
System for Conclusion
9.2.2 Further Details of the Contents of the Main Body of the Protocol
Background or Introduction
Review of Literature
Objectives and Hypotheses
Materials and Methods
Data Analysis
System for Conclusion
Citing the References
References
10 Processing of Data
10.1 Collation of Data and Scrutiny
10.1.1 Uniformity of the Process of Data Collection
Record Linkage
10.1.2 Data Validation
Missing Values
Outliers
10.1.3 Master Chart and Data Entries
10.1.4 Indexes and Scores for Individual Subjects
Indexes
Scores
Z-Score and T-Score
10.2 Epidemiological Indices
10.2.1 Rates and Ratios
Rate
Ratio
10.2.2 Prevalence and Incidence
Prevalence
Incidence
Person-Years
10.2.3 Risk, Hazard, and Odds
Risk
Hazard
Relative Risk
Odds Ratio
Odds Ratio vs. Relative Risk
Rate Ratio
Attributable Risk
10.3 Representative Summary Measures
10.3.1 Summary Measures for Quantitative Data
Mean, Median, and Mode
Percentiles
Standard Deviation and Variance
10.3.2 Summary Measures for Qualitative Data
10.4 Tabulation and Graphics
10.4.1 Categorization of Data and the Choice of Class Intervals
10.4.2 Types of Data Tables
Frequency Tables for Quantitative Data
Contingency Tables for Qualitative Data
Features of a Table
10.4.3 Graphs and Diagrams
Graphs
Diagrams
10.4.4 Statistical Distribution of Medical Measurements
Gausssian Shape
Shapes Other Than Gaussian
10.4.5 Normal versus Abnormal Levels
References
11 Statistical Analysis
11.1 Confidence Intervals, P-Values, and Power
11.1.1 CI for Proportion and Mean
CI for Proportion and Difference in Proportions
CI for Mean and Difference in Means
11.1.2 CI for Relative Risk and Odds Ratio
11.1.3 Statistical Significance, P-Value, and Power
Philosophical Basis of Statistical Tests
Type I and Type II Errors
Statistical Significance
Medical Significance and Statistical Power
11.2 Some Basic Statistical Tests
11.2.1 Tests for Qualitative Data
Goodness-of-Fit Test – One-Way Tables
Two-Way Tables with at Least One Dichotomous Variable
McNemar’s Test
Bigger Tables
11.2.2 Tests for Quantitative Data
Student’s t-Test
Other Applications of Student’s t-Test
ANOVA Procedure – F-Test
11.3 Relationships and Regressions
11.3.1 Dependent and Independent Variables
Dependent Variable
Independent Variables
11.3.2 Basics of Logistic Regression
Essential Features of a Logistic Regression
Odds Ratio from Logistic Regression
Adjusted and Unadjusted Odds Ratios
Interpretation of a Logistic Regression
11.3.3 Ordinary Least Square Regression
Regression Among Quantitative Measurements
Multiple Linear Regression
11.3.4 Correlation and Agreement
Correlation Coefficient
Agreement between Two Quantitative Measurements
11.4 Cause–Effect Relationships and Validation of Results
11.4.1 Evidence of Cause–Effect
Criteria of Cause–Effect
Assessment of Cause–Effect in Medical Research
Multifactorial Causation
11.4.2 Validation of the Findings
Validity of Estimates, Statistical Methods, Models, and Scoring Systems
Validity of Results and Conclusions
11.5 Statistical Fallacies
11.5.1 Cherry-Picking the Statistical Indices
Mean or Proportion
Misuse of Percentages
11.5.2 Fallacious Interpretation
Inadequate Interpretation
Misuse of P-Values
Misuse of Statistical Tools
Data Dredging
11.5.3 Statistical Errors Can Cause Many Deaths
References
12 Writing a Thesis or a Paper, and Oral Presentation
12.1 Effective Scientific Writing
12.1.1 Text Style
12.1.2 Tables
12.1.3 Illustrations
12.1.4 Format of a Manuscript (IMRaD)
12.2 Preliminaries of a Manuscript
12.2.1 Title
Specificity in Title
Types of Titles of a Paper
Thesis Title
Title Page
12.2.2 Authorship Credits
12.2.3 Keywords
12.2.4 Abstract and Summary
Abstract in a Paper
Summary of a Thesis
12.3 Main Body of the Report
12.3.1 Writing a Suitable Introduction
12.3.2 Explaining Materials and Methods
Subjects of the Study
Intervention and Instrumentation
Data Collation
Statistical Methods
12.3.3 Describing the Results
Describe the Baseline of the Subjects
Statistical Results
12.3.4 Discussion of Findings and Conclusion
Discuss Your Results
Compare Your Results
Conclusion
Discussion in a Thesis
12.4 End Features of a Report
12.4.1 Acknowledgment Ethics
12.4.2 Key Messages
12.4.3 References
Selection of References
Format of References
Bibliography
12.4.4 Contribution of Authors and Conflict of Interest
12.4.5 Appendix
12.5 Oral Presentation
12.5.1 Essentials of Effective Presentation
Speaking
Structure
Presentation Aids
Dissertation Defense
12.5.2 Poster Presentation
Layout of a Poster
References
13 Reporting Guidelines
13.1 Guidelines for Reporting of Clinical Trials (CONSORT Statement)
13.2 Reporting of Observational Studies (STROBE Statement)
13.3 Reporting of Diagnostic Accuracy Studies (STARD Statement)
13.4 Guidelines for Reporting of Statistical Methods (Revised SAMPL Statement)
References
14 Reporting Ethics and Peer Reviews
Covering Letter
14.1 Duplication
14.1.1 Duplicate Publication
14.1.2 Plagiarism
14.1.3 Copyright and Permissions
14.2 Conflicts and Reviews
14.2.1 Conflict of Interest
Financial Conflicts
Personal and Professional Conflicts
Reporting Conflict of Interest
14.2.2 Peer Review
Review Process in Journals
Review of Thesis
Responding to the Reviews
14.3 Confidentiality and Misreporting
14.3.1 Confidentiality
14.3.2 Misreporting
Result Manipulation
Bogus Research
14.4 The Last Word
References
Index