دانلود کتاب Sea Ice: Physics and Remote Sensing

فهرست مطالب :

Cover
Title Page
Copyrigt Page
Contents
Preface
Acknowledgments and Recognitions
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Background
1.2 Canada and the Arctic: Historical and Community Synopsis
1.3 The Fascinating Nature of Sea Ice
1.4 Sea Ice in Research and Operational Disciplines
1.4.1 Sea Ice in Physics
1.4.2 Sea Ice in Climatology
1.4.3 Sea Ice in Meteorology
1.4.4 Sea Ice in Oceanography
1.4.5 Sea Ice in Marine Biology
1.4.6 Sea Ice in Marine Navigation
1.4.7 Sea Ice and Offshore Structures
1.4.8 Sea Ice as A Transportation Platform
1.4.9 Sea Ice in Relation to Solid Earth Sciences: Rocks and Plate Tectonics
1.5 Sea Ice and Remote Sensing
1.6 Motivation for the Book Writing
1.7 Organization of the Book
1.8 References
Chapter 2 Ice Physics and Physical Processes
2.1 Prior to Freezing: About Freshwater and Seawater
2.1.1 Molecular Composition of Water
2.1.2 Seawater Salinity
2.1.3 Seawater Density
2.2 Phase Diagram of Sea Ice
2.3 Initial Ice Formation
2.3.1 Freezing Processes in Freshwater and Seawater
2.3.2 Initial Formation of Ice Crystals and Frazil Ice
2.4 Sea Ice Growth
2.4.1 Lateral Ice Growth
2.4.2 Vertical Ice Growth (Congelation Ice)
2.4.3 Superimposed Ice
2.4.4 Thermodynamic Ice Growth
2.4.4.1 Simplified Models of Sea Ice Growth
2.4.4.2 Effect of Snow On Sea Ice
2.4.4.3 Effect of Oceanic Heat Flux
2.4.4.4 Effect of Surface Ablation
2.5 Processes in Ice
2.5.1 Compositional (Constitutional) Supercooling At the Ice–Water Interface
2.5.2 Dendritic Ice–Water Interface and Entrapment of Brine Within Sea Ice
2.5.3 Grains and Subgrains In Sea Ice
2.5.4 Brine Pockets Formation, Contents and Distribution In Sea Ice
2.5.5 Salinity Loss During Sea Ice Growth
2.5.5.1 Initial Rapid Salt Rejection At the Ice–Water Interface
2.5.5.2 Subsequent Slow Salt Rejection from the Bulk Ice
2.6 Ice Deformation
2.6.1 Rafting of Thin Ice
2.6.2 Ridging of Thick Ice
2.6.3 Formation of Ice Rubble Field
2.6.4 Fractures in Ice Cover
2.7 Ice Decay and Aging
2.7.1 Ice Decay
2.7.2 Ice Aging
2.8 Sea Ice Classes
2.9 Sea Ice Regimes
2.9.1 Polynyas
2.9.2 Pancake Ice Regime
2.9.3 Marginal Ice Zone and Ice Edge
2.9.3.1 Marginal Ice Zone
2.9.3.2 Ice Edge
2.9.4 Ice of Glacier Origin
2.10 References
Chapter 3 Sea Ice Properties: Data and Derivations
3.1 Typical Values of Sea Ice and Snow Physical Parameters
3.2 Temperature Profiles in Ice and Snow
3.3 Bulk Salinity and Salinity Profile
3.3.1 Bulk Salinity
3.3.2 Salinity Profiles
3.4 Density of First-Year and Multi-Year Ice
3.5 Volume Fraction of Sea Ice Constituents
3.5.1 Brine Volume Fraction
3.5.2 Solid Salt Volume Fraction
3.5.3 Pure Ice Volume Fraction
3.5.4 Air Volume Fraction
3.5.5 Temperature Dependence of Volume Fractions of Different Components
3.6 Thermal Properties
3.6.1 Thermal Conductivity of Sea Ice
3.6.2 Thermal Conductivity of Snow
3.6.3 Specific Heat of Sea Ice
3.6.4 Latent Heat of Sea Ice
3.7 Dielectric Properties
3.7.1 Dielectric Constant of Brine
3.7.2 Dielectric Mixing Models
3.7.3 Field Measurements of Dielectric Constant
3.8 References
Chapter 4 Laboratory Techniques for Revealing the Structure of Polycrystalline Ice
4.1 Relevant Optical Properties
4.1.1 Polarized Light
4.1.2 Birefringence or Double Refraction of Ordinary (Ih) Ice
4.1.3 Optical Retardation
4.1.4 Interference Colors for White Light
4.2 Ice Thin Sectioning Techniques
4.2.1 Hot-plate Techniques for Thin Sectioning of Ice
4.2.2 Double-Microtoming Technique for Thin Sectioning of Ice
4.2.3 Double-Microtoming Technique for Thin Sectioning of Snow
4.2.4 Precautions for Thin Sectioning by DMT
4.2.5 Optimum Thickness for Thin Sections of Ice and Snow
4.3 Viewing and Photographing Ice Thin Sections
4.3.1 Laboratory and Hand-Held Polariscope
4.3.2 Cross-Polarized versus Parallel-Polarized Light Viewing
4.3.3 Scattered Light and Combined Cross-Polarized/Scattered Light Viewing
4.3.4 Circularly Polarized Light and Rapid Crystallographic Analysis
4.4 Advanced Techniques for Revealing Fine Crystallographic Microstructural Features
4.4.1 Sublimation of Ice and Sublimation Pits
4.4.2 Etching Processes
4.4.2.1 Thermal Etching of Microtomed Ice Surfaces
4.4.2.2 Chemical Etching and Replicating Ice Surfaces
4.5 References
Chapter 5 Polycrystalline Ice Structure
5.1 Terms and Definitions Relevant to Polycrystalline Ice
5.1.1 Special Thermal State of Natural Ice
5.1.2 General Terms for Structural Aspects of Ice
5.1.3 Basic Terms and Definitions
5.2 Morphology of Ice
5.2.1 Forms of Ice Crystals
5.2.2 Miller Indices for Hexagonal Ice
5.2.3 Growth Direction of Ice Crystals
5.2.4 Ice Density in Relation to Crystalline Structure
5.3 Structure- and Texture-Based Crystalline Classification of Natural Ice
5.3.1 Freshwater Ice Classification of Michel and Ramseier
5.3.2 Extending Crystallographic Classification of Freshwater Ice to Sea Ice
5.3.3 Crystallographic Classes of Natural Ice
5.3.3.1 Granular or Snow Ice (T1 Ice)
5.3.3.2 Randomly Oriented (S4) and Vertically Oriented (S5) Frazil Ice
5.3.3.3 Columnar-Grained with c Axis Vertical (S1 Ice)
5.3.3.4 Columnar-Grained with c Axis Horizontal and Random (S2 Ice)
5.3.3.5 Columnar-Grained with c Axis Horizontal and Oriented (S3 Ice)
5.3.3.6 Agglomerate Ice with Discontinuous Columnar-Grained (R Type Ice)
5.3.3.7 Ice of Land-Based Origin
5.3.3.8 Platelet Sea Ice
5.3.4 Stereographical Projection (Fabric Diagram) of Natural Polycrystalline Ice
5.4 Examples of Crystallographic Structure of Natural Sea Ice
5.4.1 Crystallographic Structure of Seasonal Sea Ice
5.4.1.1 Frazil Ice (S5 Type)
5.4.1.2 Columnar-Grained Ice (S3 Type)
5.4.1.3 Agglomeration of Various Crystallographic Structures
5.4.1.4 Air Entrapment in Seasonal Ice
5.4.2 Crystallographic Structure of Perennial Sea Ice
5.4.2.1 Hummock Ice
5.4.2.2 Melt Pond Ice
5.5 Biomass Accumulation at the Bottom of the Ice
5.6 Information Contents in Polycrystalline Ice Structure
5.6.1 Geometric Characteristics of Crystalline Structure
5.6.2 Geometric Characteristics of Brine Pockets in First-Year Ice
5.6.3 Geometric Characteristics of Air Bubbles
5.7 References
Chapter 6 Major Field Expeditions to Study Sea Ice
6.1 The Arctic Ice Dynamic Joint Experiment (AIDJEX)
6.2 Mould Bay Experiments 1981–1984: Stories that Were Never Told
6.2.1 Site, Resources, and Logistics
6.2.2 Sea Ice Conditions
6.2.3 Aging of Sea Ice: from FYI to MYI
6.2.4 Interface Between Old and New Ice in Second-Year Ice Profile
6.3 High Arctic Experience with Ice of Land Origin
6.3.1 Ward Hunt Ice Shelf and Hobson\'s Choice Ice Island Experiment
6.3.2 Multi-Year Rubble Field Around the Ice Island
6.4 Labrador Ice Margin Experiment (LIMEX)
6.5 Sea Ice Monitoring and Modeling Site (SIMMS) Program
6.6 The Surface Heat Budget of Arctic Ocean (SHEBA)
6.7 The Norwegian Young Sea Ice Experiment (N-ICE)
6.8 Marginal Ice Zone (MIZ) Experiments
6.9 Ice Exercise by Us Navy
6.10 The Multidisciplinary Drifting Observatory for the Study of Arctic Climate (MOSAiC)
6.11 References
Chapter 7 Remote Sensing Fundamentals Relevant to Sea Ice
7.1 General Principles of Satellite Remote Sensing
7.2 Electromagnetic Wave Properties and Processes
7.2.1 Polarization of EM Wave
7.2.2 Reflection, Transmission, Absorption, Scattering, and Emission
7.2.2.1 Reflection and Fresnel Model
7.2.2.2 Transmission
7.2.2.3 Absorption and Scattering Losses
7.2.2.4 Emitted Radiation (Re-radiation)
7.2.3 Brightness Temperature and Emissivity
7.2.4 Penetration Depth
7.3 Optical Sensing
7.4 Thermal Infrared Sensing
7.5 Microwave Remote Sensing
7.6 Imaging Radar Sensing
7.6.1 Imaging Radar Principles
7.6.1.1 Radar Equations and Spatial Resolutions of RAR and SAR
7.6.1.2 Coherency and Polarization of Radar Signals
7.6.1.3 Radar Scattering Mechanisms
7.6.2 Multichannel SAR
7.6.3 SAR Polarimetry: Formulation and Derived Parameters
7.6.3.1 Formulation of Polarimetric Measurements
7.6.3.2 Polarimetric Parameters Derived from the FP SAR Data
7.6.3.3 Linking Radar Scattering Mechanisms to Ice Features
7.6.3.4 Age-Based versus SAR-Based and Scattering- Based Sea Ice Classification
7.7 Scatterometer Systems
7.8 Altimeter Systems
7.9 Radiative Processes in Relevant Media
7.9.1 Atmospheric Influences
7.9.1.1 Influences of Atmosphere on Optical and Infrared Observations
7.9.1.2 Atmospheric Correction for Passive Microwave Observations
7.9.2 Seawater
7.9.2.1 Seawater in the Optical and Thermal Infrared Data
7.9.2.2 Seawater in the Microwave Data
7.9.3 Snow on Sea Ice: Physical and Radiative Processes
7.9.3.1 Snow in Optical and Thermal Infrared Data
7.9.3.2 Snow in the Microwave Data
Effect of Dry Snow Depth
Effect of snow density
Effect of Snow Grain Size and Ice Layering
Effects of Snow Wetness
7.10 References
Chapter 8 Satellite Sensors for Sea Ice Monitoring
8.1 Historical Synopsis of Remote Sensing Satellites for Sea Ice
8.2 Optical and Thermal Infrared Sensors
8.3 Modern Passive Microwave Sensors
8.4 Modern Imaging Radar Sensors
8.5 Scatterometer Sensors
8.6 Altimeter Sensors
8.7 References
Chapter 9 Radiometric and Scattering Observations from Sea Ice, Water, and Snow
9.1 Optical Reflectance and Albedo Data
9.2 Microwave Brightness Temperature Data
9.3 Radar Backscatter
9.3.1 Backscatter Databases from Single-Channel SAR
9.3.2 Dual Polarization Data
9.3.3 Fully Polarimetric Data
9.4 Emissivity Data in the Microwave Bands
9.5 Microwave Penetration Depth
9.6 References
Chapter 10 Retrieval of Sea Ice Surface Information
10.1 Mechanically Generated Surface Deformation
10.1.1 Rafted Ice
10.1.2 Ridged, Rubble, and Brash Ice
10.1.3 Kinematic Processes: Convergence, Divergence, Shear, and Vorticity
10.1.4 Cracks and Leads
10.2 Thermally Induced Surface Features
10.2.1 Surface Melt
10.2.1.1 Optical Observations
10.2.1.2 Passive Microwave Observations
10.2.1.3 Active Microwave Observations
10.2.1.4 Airborne Photography
10.2.2 Frost Flowers
10.3 Meteorologically Driven Surface Features
10.3.1 Polynya Identification and Properties
10.3.2 Snow Depth
10.4 References
Chapter 11 Retrieval of Sea Ice Geophysical Parameters
11.1 Sea Ice Type Classification
11.1.1 Ice Classification from Optical and TIR Systems
11.1.2 Ice Classification from Passive Microwave Data
11.1.3 Ice Classification from SAR
11.1.3.1 Ice Classification from Single-Channel SAR
11.1.3.2 Ice Classification from Dual-Channel SAR
11.1.3.3 Ice Classification from Polarimetric SAR Data
11.2 Sea Ice Concentration
11.2.1 Ice Concentration from Optical and TIR Images
11.2.2 Ice Concentration from Coarse-Resolution Microwave Observations
11.2.2.1 NASA Team (NT) Algorithm
11.2.2.2 The Enhanced NASA Team (NT2) Algorithm
11.2.2.3 The ASI Algorithm
11.2.2.4 ECICE Algorithm
11.2.2.5 Intercomparison of PM Algorithms
11.2.2.6 Sources of Error and Sensitivity of Ice Concentration Algorithms
11.2.2.7 Assessment of Ice Concentration Results Against Ice Charts
11.2.3 Ice Concentration from Fine-Resolution SAR
11.3 Sea Ice Extent and Area
11.4 Sea Ice Thickness (SIT)
11.4.1 SIT from TIR Observations
11.4.2 SIT from PM Observations
11.4.3 SIT from Altimeter Observations
11.4.4 SIT from SAR Observations
11.5 Ice Surface Temperature (IST)
11.5.1 IST from TIR Observations
11.5.2 IST from PM Observations
11.6 Sea Ice Age
11.7 Sea Ice Motion and Kinematics
11.7.1 Methods of Ice Motion Tracking
11.7.1.1 Motion Tracking Using Image Features
11.7.1.2 Motion Tracking Using Individual Sea Ice Floes
11.7.2 Operational Ice Motion Products
11.8 References
Chapter 12 Modeling Microwave Emission and Scattering from Snow-Covered Sea Ice
12.1 The Need for Modeling Microwave Emission and Scattering from Snow-Covered Sea Ice
12.1.1 The ECMWF Workshop and Large-Scale Sea Ice Modeling
12.1.2 Gross Features of Forward Models
12.2 Radiative Transfer and Modeling Approaches for Sea Ice Thermal Microwave Emission
12.2.1 Dense Media Volume Scattering
12.2.2 Sea Ice Emission Models
12.2.3 Sea Ice Backscatter Models for Level Ice
12.2.4 Sea Ice Backscatter Models for Ridged Ice
12.3 The Input to a Forward Model
12.3.1 Primary Input Parameters
12.3.2 Secondary Input Parameters
12.3.3 Tertiary Input Parameters, Volume, and Surface Scattering
12.4 Example of the Implementation of an Altimeter Model to Study the Impact of Saline Snow on the Backscatter
12.5 Example of Combining Atmospheric, Ocean, and Sea Ice Emission Models to Simulate the Noise in Sea Ice Concentration Estimates
12.5.1 Snow in the Emission Models
12.5.2 The Combined Sea Ice Thermodynamic, Atmospheric, Ocean, and Sea Ice Emission Models
12.6 Inverse Modeling
12.7 References
Chapter 13 Impacts of Climate Change on Polar Ice
13.1 The Inconvenient Truth of Global Warming: How is it Manifested in The Polar Region?
13.2 Sea Ice Regimes in the Two Polar Regions
13.2.1 Geographic Differences Between the Two Polar Regions and Their Impacts on Sea Ice
13.2.2 Differences in Sea Ice Characteristics Between the Two Polar Regions
13.3 Changes of Polar Sea Ice in Response to Global Warming
13.3.1 The Arctic and Antarctic Ice Extent
13.3.2 The Arctic and Antarctic Ice Thickness and Volume
13.3.3 The Arctic Sea Ice Age
13.3.4 The Arctic Sea Ice Dynamics
13.3.5 The Antarctic Icebergs
13.4 Coupling Between Polar Sea Ice and Environmental Factors.
13.4.1 Interaction of the Arctic Sea Ice with the Environment
13.4.1.1 Atmospheric Factors that Contribute to Changes in the Arctic Sea Ice
13.4.1.2 Enhanced Arctic Warming due to Changes of Sea Ice Cover
13.4.1.3 Arctic Warming due to Sea Ice Advection Out of the Arctic Basin
13.4.1.4 Interaction of the Arctic Sea Ice with Wind
13.4.1.5 Mutual Interactions Between the Arctic Sea Ice Cover and Oceanic Forcing
13.4.2 Interaction of the Antarctic Sea Ice with the Environment
13.4.2.1 Interaction of the Antarctic Sea ice with Atmospheric Factors
13.4.2.2 Interaction of the Antarctic Sea Ice with Oceanic Forcing
13.4.2.3 Interaction Between the Antarctic Sea Ice, Ice Shelves, and Icebergs
13.5 References
Index
EULA