دانلود کتاب Sustainable Utilization and Conservation of Africa’s Biological Resources and Environment

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Preface
Contents
Editors and Contributors
Chapter 1: Overview of African Biological Resources and Environment
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Conservation of Africa´s Biological Resources and Environment
1.3 Africa´s Biological Resources
1.4 The Diverse Ecosystems in Africa
1.5 African Biological Resources and Framework for Biodiversity Management
1.5.1 Convention on Biological Diversity
1.5.2 The African Convention on Nature and Natural Resource Conservation
1.5.3 The Ramsar Convention
1.5.4 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora
1.5.5 Convention to Combat Desertification
1.5.6 The Climate Change Framework Convention
1.5.7 The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea
1.5.8 Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS)
1.6 Trends in Biological Resources Management
1.7 Sustainable Initiatives for Biodiversity Management
1.7.1 Trade and Management of Wildlife
1.7.2 Forest Management Using Economic Instruments
1.8 Conservation and Utilization of Africa´s Biological Resources and Environment
1.9 Assessing the Progress Towards African Sustainable Development
1.9.1 Governance
1.9.2 Poverty
1.9.3 Demographic Changes
1.9.4 State of the Economy
1.9.5 Sustainable Consumption and Production (SCP)
1.9.6 Social Equity and Opportunities
1.9.7 Education
1.9.8 Health
1.9.9 Agriculture, Food Security, and Nutrition
1.9.10 Natural Resource Base
1.9.11 Energy
1.9.12 Climate Change
1.9.13 Natural Disasters
1.10 Contribution of Some Sectors to Sustainable Growth and Development in African Countries
1.11 Future Direction for Conservation Initiatives in Africa
1.12 Conclusion
References
Part I: Conservation of Africa´s Biological Resources and Environment
Chapter 2: Biodiversity Conservation and Tourism Sustainability in Africa
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Tourism Sector
2.3 Biodiversity as Tourism Attraction
2.4 Sustainability
2.5 The Significant Value of Biodiversity for Sustainable Tourism
2.6 Description of Tourism Trend in Africa
2.7 Ecotourism Clustering Potentials for Conservation of Biodiversity and Sustainable Tourism
2.8 Africa´s Biodiversity as Ecotourism Appeal
2.8.1 Nigeria
2.8.2 Kenya
2.8.3 South Africa
2.9 Implication of Tourism on Biodiversity
2.10 Legislation, Governance, and Policy in Ensuring Biodiversity Sustainability
2.11 Constitutional Laws and Policy for Sustainable Biodiversity Management in Africa
2.12 Constraints of Biodiversity Conservation Policies and Laws
2.13 Tourism Policy and Sustainability in Africa
2.14 National Conservation and Wildlife Tourism Policies: A Case Study of Botswana and South Africa
2.15 Conclusion
References
Chapter 3: Biodiversity Conservation Strategies and Sustainability
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Biodiversity and Sustainable Development
3.3 Value of Biodiversity
3.4 Threats and Consequences of Biodiversity Loss
3.4.1 Extinction
3.4.2 Genetic and Behavioral Degradation of Taxa
3.4.3 Habitat Degradation and Fragmentation
3.4.4 Pollution
3.4.5 Introduced Species
3.4.6 Disease
3.4.7 Exploitation
3.4.8 Overgrazing
3.4.9 Institutional and Legal Framework
3.4.10 Legal Framework
3.4.10.1 International Legal Framework
3.4.10.2 National Biodiversity Legal Framework
3.4.10.3 Institutional Framework
3.5 Biodiversity Conservation
3.5.1 in Situ Conservation
3.5.2 Forest and Game Reserve
3.5.3 Sacred Groves
3.5.4 Home Gardens
3.5.5 Seed Banks
3.5.6 Botanical and Zoological Gardens
3.5.7 Ex-Situ Conservation Strategies
3.6 Food Security and Nutrition
3.7 Forests, Biodiversity, and Human Health
3.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 4: Potentials, Threats, and Sustainable Conservation Strategies of Plankton and Macrophytes
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Aquatic Biodiversity
4.3 Species Components of Aquatic Biodiversity
4.4 Plankton as a Component of Aquatic Biodiversity
4.5 Classification of Plankton
4.5.1 Classification-based Trophic Levels
4.5.1.1 Phytoplankton
4.5.1.2 Zooplankton
4.5.1.3 Mycoplankton
4.5.1.4 Bacterioplankton
4.5.1.5 Virioplankton
4.5.2 Classification Based on Life Cycle
4.5.3 Classification Based on Size
4.5.4 Classification Based on Habitat Group
4.5.4.1 Marine Plankton
4.5.4.2 Freshwater Plankton
4.5.4.3 Aeroplankton
4.5.4.4 Geoplankton
4.5.4.5 Gelatinous Zooplankton
4.5.4.6 Ichthyoplankton
4.5.4.7 Holoplankton
4.5.4.8 Meroplankton
4.5.4.9 Pseudoplankton
4.5.4.10 Tychoplankton
4.5.4.11 Mineralized Plankton
4.6 Ecological Significance of Plankton
4.6.1 Food Chain
4.6.2 Carbon Cycle
4.6.3 Oxygen Production
4.6.4 Absorption Efficiency
4.7 Aquatic Macrophytes as a Component of Aquatic Biodiversity
4.7.1 Ecological Groups of Aquatic Macrophytes
4.7.2 Growth Types/Forms of Aquatic Macrophytes
4.7.2.1 Floating Macrophytes
4.7.2.2 Submerged Macrophytes
4.7.2.3 Emergent Macrophytes
4.7.2.4 Algae
4.7.3 Adaptations of Macrophytes to Aquatic Habitats
4.8 Ecological Indicators of Aquatic Biodiversity
4.9 Models for Assessing Ecological Indicators
4.10 Importance of Aquatic Biodiversity
4.10.1 Cultural Services
4.10.2 Supporting Services
4.10.3 Regulating Services
4.10.4 Provisioning and Medicinal Services
4.10.5 Biomonitoring Potentials
4.11 Threats of Aquatic Biodiversity
4.11.1 Pollution Due to Human Activities
4.11.1.1 Oil and Gas
4.11.1.2 Dredging
4.11.1.3 Waste Dump
4.11.1.4 Use of Chemicals for Fishing
4.11.1.5 Unsustainable Use of Aquatic Resources
4.11.1.6 Others
4.11.2 Pollution Due to Natural Effects
4.11.2.1 Flooding
4.11.2.2 Others
4.12 Conservation Approaches to Aquatic Biodiversity
4.13 Conclusion
References
Chapter 5: Threats and Conservation Status of Cercopithecus sclateri in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Species Description
5.3 Habitat and Geographical Distribution
5.4 Conservation Status and Abundance of Cercopithecus sclateri in Itam, Nigeria
5.5 Cercopithecus sclateri Population Structure
5.6 Threat to Cercopithecus sclateri Conservation in Ikot Uso Akpan, Nigeria
5.6.1 Drivers of Vegetation Changes
5.6.2 Causes of Cercopithecus sclateri Population Changes
5.6.3 Responses of Cercopithecus sclateri to Forest Destruction
5.6.4 Effect of Vegetation Changes on Cercopithecus sclateri Diets
5.6.5 Effect of Forest Exploitation on Cercopithecus sclateri
5.6.6 Effect of Climate Alteration on Cercopithecus sclateri
5.7 Conservation Measures for Sustaining Sclater´s Guenon Population in Itu
5.7.1 Landuse/Cover Analysis of Cercopithecus sclateri Habitat
5.7.2 Coordinated Survey of Cercopithecus sclateri Population
5.7.3 Provision of Funding for Infrastructure and Law Enforcement
5.7.4 Formalizing the Protection of the Forest
5.7.5 Connecting Forest Patches Through a Corridor Framework
5.7.6 Enhancing Education and Development Opportunities
5.7.7 Develop the Ecotourism Potential of the Area
5.8 Conlusion
References
Chapter 6: Potential Threats and Possible Conservation Strategies of Biodiversity in Niger Delta Region of Nigeria
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Ecology of the Niger Delta
6.2.1 Mangrove Swamps (Marine and Estuarine)
6.2.2 Tableland Rainforests
6.2.3 Freshwater Forest Marshlands
6.3 Anthropogenic Activities Influencing the Ecology of the Niger Delta Ecosystem
6.3.1 Flooding
6.3.2 Road Construction and Infrastructural Development (Airports, Markets, Industries, Etc.)
6.3.3 Pollution from Industries
6.3.4 Poor Waste Management
6.3.5 Uncontrolled Bush Burning
6.3.6 Use of Chemical Fertilizers
6.3.7 Use of Pesticides and Herbicides
6.3.8 Fuel Wood Extraction, Logging, Deforestation, and Excessive Exploitation of Forest Resource
6.4 Uses of Biodiversity in the Niger Delta
6.4.1 Food
6.4.2 Traditional Medicine
6.5 Status of Biodiversity in the Niger Delta
6.5.1 Animals
6.5.1.1 Birds
6.5.1.2 Reptiles and Amphibians
6.5.1.3 Fishes
6.5.1.4 Insects and Other Arthropods
6.5.1.5 Microorganisms
6.5.2 Plants
6.6 Impacts of Biodiversity Decline in the Niger Delta
6.6.1 Reduction in Population and Diversity Trend
6.6.2 Loss of Medically Valuable Biodiversities
6.6.3 Loss of Economically Important Biodiversities
6.6.4 Climate Change and Environmental Degradation
6.6.5 Effects on Ecological and Nutrient Cycling
6.6.6 Destruction of Habitats
6.7 Possible Conservation Strategies
6.7.1 Pasture Management
6.7.2 Minimization of Waste; Reuse or Recycle
6.7.3 Formulation, Implementation, and Enforcement of Strict Compliance to Environmental Laws
6.7.4 Sensitization of Holiday Makers and the General Public
6.7.5 Introduction of Biodiversity Conservation in School Curriculum
6.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 7: Exploration of Local Beliefs and Cultural Heritages as Tools for Species Conservation in Selected Sites in Africa
7.1 Introduction
7.1.1 Mid 1800s-Romantic-Transcendental Conservation Ethics
7.1.2 1900-Resource Conservation Ethic
7.1.3 Early/Mid-Twentieth Century-Evolutionary Ecological Land Ethic
7.2 Categorization of Protected Areas
7.2.1 The Niger Delta
7.3 Conservation Ethics
7.3.1 Anthropocentrism
7.3.2 The Judeo-Christian Stewardship Conservation Ethic
7.3.3 Traditional Non-western Environmental Ethics
7.3.4 African Traditional Religion
7.4 African Religious and Cultural Beliefs in Conservation
7.5 Identification of Communities that Practice Local Conservation
7.5.1 Worshipping and Libating at the Foot of Big Trees
7.5.2 Mystical Forest and Rivers in Ogoni
7.6 Factors that Cause Resource Overexploitation
7.7 Establishment of Communal Conservation Projects
7.8 The Role of Community-Government Partnership in the Conservation of Rare Species
7.8.1 Research and Training
7.8.2 Safety and Security of Forest
7.8.3 Forest Resource Utilization
7.8.4 Sensitization and Enlightenment
7.9 The Significance of Cultural Beliefs in Species Conservation
7.10 Future Potentials in Local Conservation Strategies
7.11 Conclusion and Recommendations
References
Chapter 8: The Need to Conserve and Protect Forest Resources: African Perspective
8.1 Introduction
8.2 The Role of Forest in National Development
8.2.1 Rendering Environmentally Friendly Services
8.2.2 Forests are Ideal for Recreational Activities
8.2.3 Increasing Nation´s Gross Domestic Product
8.2.4 International Trade
8.2.5 Job Creation
8.2.6 Medicine
8.2.7 Infrastructure Building
8.2.8 Food Security
8.2.9 Others
8.3 Factors Leading to the Destruction of Forests
8.3.1 Deforestation\'s Direct Causes
8.3.1.1 Industrialization/Urbanization/Infrastructure
8.3.1.2 Logging and Fuel Wood
8.3.1.3 Overgrazing
8.3.1.4 Expansion of Farmland for Agriculture
8.3.1.5 Bushfires
8.3.1.6 Mining and Oil Company Activities
8.3.1.7 Wars and Role of the Military
8.3.1.8 Tourism
8.3.2 Indirect Causes of Deforestation
8.3.2.1 Colonialism
8.3.2.2 Heavy International Debt
8.3.2.3 Poverty and Population Growth
8.3.2.4 Emigration
8.3.2.5 Traditional Land Tenure is Absent
8.3.2.6 Undervaluation of the Forests
8.3.2.7 Corrupt and Political Practice
8.4 Effects of Forest Destruction
8.4.1 Biodiversity Threat
8.4.2 Depletion of Soil Fertility
8.4.3 Lead to Soil Erosion
8.4.4 Pollution
8.4.5 Loss of Local Medicinal Plants
8.4.6 Apparent Reduction of Foreign Earnings from Timber Export
8.4.7 Contribution to Climate Change and Global Warming
8.4.8 Leads to Desertification
8.4.9 Forests Loss Could Lead to Flooding
8.5 Options for Conserving Forest Resources
8.5.1 Community Enlightenment
8.5.2 Enforcement of Forest Laws and Policies
8.5.3 Reforestation and Afforestation
8.5.4 Management of Protected Areas and Reserves
8.5.5 Decrease in Population Growth
8.5.6 Use of Less Wood Products
8.5.7 Adequate Monitoring and Information System
8.6 Role of Biodiversity Law on the Conservation of Forest Resources
8.7 Role of International, National, and Local Agencies in the Conservation of Biodiversity
8.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Rationale Behind Conservation of Africa´s Biological Resources
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biological Resources
9.2.1 Significance of Biological Resources Conservation
9.2.2 Environmental Conservation
9.2.3 Traditional Practices that Enhance Biological Resources Conservation
9.3 Suitability of African Environment for Conservation
9.3.1 Diversity of Habitats
9.3.2 Africa Includes Several Biodiversity Hotspots
9.3.3 Marine Biological Resources
9.4 Justification for Biological Resources Conservation
9.4.1 Utilitarian Reasons
9.4.2 Genetic Characteristics
9.4.3 Chemical and Medical Uses
9.4.4 Potential for New Crops and Products
9.4.5 Use by Indigenous People for Survival
9.4.6 Tourism
9.4.7 Medical and Scientific Research
9.4.8 Ecological Justifications
9.4.9 Moral and Ethical Justification
9.5 Drivers of Biological Resource Loss in Africa
9.6 Methods of Conserving Biological Resources/Biodiversity
9.6.1 In Situ Conservation
9.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of In Situ Conservation
9.6.3 Types of In Situ Conservation
9.6.3.1 Protected Areas and Management
9.6.3.2 Features of Protected Areas
National Parks
Sanctuaries
Biosphere Reserves
9.6.4 Protected Area Management Categories
9.6.5 Rationale for Delineation of Protected Area
9.6.6 Conservation in the Midst of Poverty
9.7 Ex-Situ Conservation
9.7.1 Identification of Species to Be Conserved
9.7.2 Methods of Ex-Situ Conservation
9.7.2.1 Long-Term Captive Breeding
9.7.2.2 Short-Term Propagation and Release
9.7.2.3 Animal Translocation
9.7.2.4 Animal Reintroduction
9.7.2.5 Botanical Gardens
9.7.2.6 Gene Banks
9.7.2.7 Seed Banking
9.7.2.8 Cryopreservation
9.7.2.9 Tissue Culture Banks
9.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Ex-Situ Conservation
9.8.1 Advantages
9.8.2 Disadvantages
9.9 Conclusion
References
Part II: Utilization Patterns and Potentials of Africa´s Biological Resources and Environment
Chapter 10: The Value of Biodiversity to Sustainable Development in Africa
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Drivers and Threats Influencing Loss of Biodiversity
10.3 African Biodiversity: Current Status
10.4 Value of Biodiversity
10.5 Link Between Sustainable Development and Biodiversity
10.6 Sustainable Use of Biodiversity in Africa
10.7 Policies and Registration Towards Sustainable Conservation of Biodiversity in Africa
10.7.1 Sustainable Conservation Principles for Enacting Policies for Biological Diversity
10.7.2 Steps Towards Formulating Sustainable Conservation Policy
10.7.3 Policy Towards Achieving Sustainable Conservation of Biodiversity
10.7.3.1 Creation of Effective Conservation Plan
10.7.3.2 Reduction in Emissions of Greenhouse Gases
10.7.3.3 Raising Awareness on Conflict-Sensitive Programs
10.7.3.4 Rights of Involvement in Resource Management
10.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 11: Medicinal Potentials of Aloe Vera (Aloe barbadensis Miller): Technologies for the Production of Therapeutics
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Occurrence, Botanical Identification, and Description of Aloe barbadensis Plant
11.2.1 Botanical Identification and Description
11.2.2 Aloe vera Leaf Structural Composition
11.2.3 Cultivation Practice of Aloe vera
11.3 History of Aloe vera
11.4 Processing of Aloe vera
11.4.1 Reception of Raw Material
11.4.2 Filtration and Deareation
11.4.3 Hot Processing and Flash Cooling
11.4.4 Cold Processing
11.4.5 Addition of Preservatives and Stabilizers
11.4.6 Storage
11.5 Chemistry of Aloe vera Plant
11.5.1 Polysaccharide Composition
11.5.2 Mannan
11.5.3 Maloyl Glucans
11.5.4 Pectins
11.5.5 Arabinan and Arabinogalactan
11.6 Bioactive Compounds of Aloe vera
11.6.1 Phytochemistry of Aloe vera
11.7 Medicinal and Therapeutic Use of Aloe vera
11.7.1 Anti-inflammatory Action
11.7.2 Anti-Ulcer Effect of Aloe vera
11.7.3 Effects on the Immune System
11.7.4 Laxative Effects
11.7.5 Antimicrobial Action
11.7.5.1 Antiviral Activity
11.7.5.2 Antibacterial Activities
11.7.5.3 Antifungal Activities
11.7.6 Antitumor Activity
11.7.7 Moisturizing and Antiaging Effect
11.7.8 Antiseptic Effect
11.7.9 Healing Properties
11.7.10 Effects on Skin Exposure to UV and Gamma Radiation
11.7.11 Role of Aloe vera in Dentistry
11.7.12 Anticancer Properties
11.7.13 Stress
11.7.14 Antioxidant Effects
11.7.15 Cosmetic and Skin Protection Application
11.8 Toxicity
11.9 Safety
11.10 Conservative Measures of Aloe vera
11.11 Conclusion
References
Chapter 12: Sustainable Utilization of Important Medicinal Plants in Africa
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Indigenous Knowledge and Medicinal Plant Harvesting
12.3 Some Important Medicinal Plants in Africa
12.3.1 Mango (Mangifera Indica)
12.3.2 Gum Arabic (Acacia senegal)
12.3.3 Okra (Abelmoschus species)
12.3.4 Alligator Pepper (Piper guineensis)
12.3.5 Aloe ferox: (Bitter Aloe or Cape Aloe)
12.3.6 Bitter Cola (Garcinia kola)
12.3.7 African Garden Egg (Solanum species)
12.3.8 Artemisia herba-alba-White Word or Wormwood
12.3.9 Onion (Allium cepa)
12.3.10 Rooibos (Aspalathus linearis)
12.3.11 Vernonia amygdalina (Bitter Leaf)
12.3.12 Centella Species
12.3.13 Black Eye Beans/Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata)
12.3.14 Clove (Eugenia caryophyllata)
12.3.15 Catharanthus roseus (Madagascan Periwinkle)
12.3.16 African (White) Star Apple (Chrysophyllum albidum)
12.3.17 Cyclopia genistoides (Honeybush)
12.3.18 Harpagophytum procumbens (Grapple plant)
12.3.19 Momordica charantia (Bitter Melon)
12.3.20 Laggera (Laggera pterodonta)
12.3.21 Pelargonium sidoides (South African Geranium)
12.3.22 Pawpaw (Carica papaya)
12.3.23 Agathosma betulina (Buchu)
12.3.24 Cocao (Theobroma cacao)
12.3.25 Neem (Azadirachta indica)
12.3.26 Guayava (Psidium guajava)
12.4 Current Trends in the Use of Medicinal Plants
12.5 Sustainable Exploitation of Medicinal Plant Resources in Africa
12.6 Factors Related to Species Rarity of Medicinal Plants
12.7 Cultivation of African Medicinal Plant Species
12.8 Some Challenges Associated with the Utilization of African Medicinal Plant Resources
12.9 Prospects and Potentials of African Medicinal Plant Resources
12.10 Conclusion
References
Chapter 13: Local Food Crops in Africa: Sustainable Utilization, Threats, and Traditional Storage Strategies
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Local Food Crop Resources in Africa
13.3 Sustainable Utilization of Local Food Crops
13.4 Threats to Local Food Crop Utilization
13.5 Traditional Food Crop Storage Strategies
13.6 Recommendations and Conclusion
References
Part III: Challenges in the Conservation and Utilization of Africa´s Biological Resources and Environment
Chapter 14: Environmental Pollution: Threats, Impact on Biodiversity, and Protection Strategies
14.1 Introduction
14.2 Air Pollution
14.2.1 Categories of Air Pollutants
14.2.2 Types of Air Pollutants
14.2.2.1 Suspended Particulate Pollutants
14.2.2.2 Gaseous Pollutants
14.2.3 Causes of Air Pollution
14.2.4 Air Pollutants and Their Effects on Humans and Animals
14.2.4.1 Carbon Monoxide
14.2.4.2 Carbon Dioxide
14.2.4.3 Nitrogen Oxides
14.2.4.4 Sulfur Dioxide
14.2.4.5 Hydrocarbons
14.2.4.6 Lead
14.2.4.7 Suspended Particulate Matter (SPM)
14.2.5 Mitigating Strategies for Air Pollution
14.2.5.1 Government Oriented Prevention
14.2.5.2 Individual Actions
14.3 Noise Pollution
14.3.1 Sources of Noise Pollution
14.3.2 Effects of Noise Pollution
14.3.3 Prevention and Control of Noise Pollution
14.4 Soil Pollution
14.4.1 Cause of Degradation in Soil Quality
14.4.1.1 Agricultural Sources
14.4.1.2 Soil Erosion
14.4.1.3 Acid Rain
14.4.1.4 Water Salinity
14.4.1.5 Industrial Waste
14.4.1.6 Plastic Bags
14.4.2 Impacts of Soil Pollution
14.4.3 Measures to Mitigate Soil Pollution
14.5 Water Pollution
14.5.1 Sources of Water Pollution
14.5.1.1 Groundwater Pollution
14.5.1.2 Agrochemical Pollution
14.5.2 Effects of Water Pollution
14.5.3 Control Measures of Water Pollution
14.6 Thermal Pollution
14.6.1 Cause of Thermal Pollution
14.6.2 Impacts of Thermal Pollution
14.6.2.1 Decreased Dissolved Oxygen
14.6.2.2 Ecological Impacts
14.6.2.3 Biodiversity Halt
14.6.2.4 Migration
14.6.2.5 Increased Toxins
14.6.3 Ways to Prevent Thermal Pollution
14.7 Anthropogenic Activities and Biodiversity Conservation
14.7.1 Definition and Importance of Biodiversity
14.7.2 Extinction of Species
14.7.3 Human Actions Toward Species Biodiversity
14.7.4 Relationship Between Poverty and Biodiversity
14.7.5 Actions by the Government on Environmental Sustainability
14.7.6 Actions for Environmental Management and Prosperity in Africa
14.7.6.1 The African Ministerial Conference on the Environment
14.7.6.2 Review of Decision Delivery of THE Conference from Its Inception
14.7.6.3 Environmental Sustainability and Progress Established in Africa Through the Conference
14.7.7 Environment and Socioeconomic Development
14.7.7.1 Uganda
14.7.7.2 Cameroon
14.7.7.3 Kenya
14.7.7.4 Tanzania
14.7.7.5 Cote d´Ivoire
14.7.7.6 Nigeria
14.8 Conclusion
References
Chapter 15: Environmental Degradation in the Niger Delta Ecosystem: The Role of Anthropogenic Pollution
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Air Pollution
15.2.1 Conventional or Criteria Pollutants
15.2.1.1 Sulfur Compounds
15.2.1.2 Nitrogen Compounds
15.2.1.3 Carbon Oxides
15.2.1.4 Metals and Halogens:
15.2.2 Unconventional Pollutants
15.2.3 Causes of Air Pollution
15.3 Water Pollution
15.3.1 Causes of Water Pollution
15.3.2 Thermal Pollution
15.3.3 Pollution by Solid Organic Wastes
15.3.4 Input into Marine Estuaries and Mangrove Forest
15.4 Heavy Metal Pollution
15.4.1 Case Studies of Heavy Metal Pollution in the Niger Delta, Nigeria
15.4.2 Sources of Heavy Metals in Marine and Estuarine Environment
15.4.3 The Fate of Heavy Metals in the Aquatic Environment
15.5 Pesticide Pollution
15.5.1 Sources, Fate, and Effects of Pesticide Pollution on Biological Systems
15.5.2 Factors Influencing the Persistence of Pesticides in Water
15.5.2.1 Solubility
15.5.2.2 Substrate
15.5.2.3 Organic Matter
15.5.2.4 Temperature
15.6 Oil Pollution
15.7 Land Pollution
15.8 Radiation
15.8.1 Sources, Fate, and Effects of Radiation in Marine and Estuarine Environment
15.9 Industrial Activities that Promote Pollution in the Niger Delta
15.9.1 Oil and Gas Industry
15.9.2 The Sawmill Industry
15.9.3 Cement Industry
15.9.4 Aquaculture
15.9.5 Beverage Industry
15.9.6 Sand Mining
15.10 Anthropogenic Activities that Promote Pollution
15.11 Impact of Pollution on the Environment
15.12 Solutions to Pollution in the Niger Delta
15.13 Conclusion and Recommendation
References
Chapter 16: Climate Change and Other Environmental Factors as Drivers of Fauna and Flora Biodiversity in Africa
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Biodiversity in Tropical Africa
16.3 Climate Change Impacts on Plant and Animal Diversity and Distribution in Africa
16.4 Soil, Topography, and Biodiversity Nexus: African Perspective
16.5 Roles of Pests, Diseases, and Invasive Species on Biodiversity in Africa
16.6 Impacts of Invasive Species on Biodiversity in Africa
16.7 Implications of Pests, Diseases, and Invasive Species on Flora Diversity in Africa
16.8 Responses of Fauna Diversity in Africa to Pests, Diseases, and Invading Species
16.9 Toward Biodiversity Sustainability in Africa
16.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 17: Contamination of African Water Resources: Impacts on Biodiversity and Strategies for Conservation and Restoration
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Water Resources in Africa: Past, Present, and Future
17.3 Contamination of African Water Resources
17.3.1 Sources of Water Contaminants
17.3.2 Factors Promoting Use of PPCPs Found in Municipal Discharges
17.3.3 Impacts of WWTPs on Water Pollutants
17.4 Social-Economic Impacts of Water Contamination
17.5 Impact of Water Pollution on Soil and Crops
17.6 Ecological Toxicity of Water Pollutants
17.6.1 Toxicity of Antibiotics
17.6.2 Toxicity of Acetaminophen
17.6.3 Toxicity of EDCs
17.6.4 Toxicity of Mixed Contaminants
17.7 Implications of Physiological Modulations by Water Contaminants
17.7.1 Water Contaminants Induced Biodiversity Loss
17.8 Water Quality Restoration
17.9 Conservation Strategy
17.10 Conclusions
References
Chapter 18: Disease Outbreaks in Ex-Situ Plant Conservation and Potential Management Strategies
18.1 Introduction
18.2 Plant Conservation Approaches
18.3 Some Ex Situ Plant Conservation Methods
18.4 Disease Outbreak in Plants Maintained Under Ex Situ Conservation
18.5 Management of Diseased Plants Held Under Ex Situ Conservation
18.6 Recommendations and Conclusion
References
Part IV: Integrated Conservation and Sustainable Utilization of Africa´s Biological Resources and Environment
Chapter 19: Challenges of Sea Turtle Conservation in African Territorial Waters: The Way Out
19.1 Introduction
19.2 Ecosystem Services of Sea turtles
19.3 Economic and Cultural Significance of Sea Turtles
19.4 Sea Turtle Threats on African Coastlines
19.4.1 Fishing and Trawling Operations
19.4.2 Exploitation and Poaching
19.4.3 Habitat Loss Due to Coastal Developments
19.4.4 Artificial Lighting
19.4.5 Marine Debris
19.4.6 Dredging Operations
19.4.7 Seismic Surveys
19.4.8 Oil Pollution
19.4.9 Climate Change Impacts
19.4.10 Marine Turtle Disease
19.4.11 Vessel Strikes and Sea Turtle Stranding
19.5 Sea Turtle Habitats in Africa-Regional Overview
19.5.1 Sea Turtles of East Africa and The Southwest Indian Ocean (SWIO) Region
19.5.1.1 United Republic of Tanzania
19.5.2 Sea Turtles of West Africa-Atlantic Coast of Africa
19.5.2.1 Cape Verde
19.5.2.2 Mauritania
19.5.2.3 Guinea-Bissau
19.5.2.4 Ghana
19.5.2.5 Benin
19.5.2.6 Nigeria
19.5.2.7 Equatorial Guinea and Gabon
19.5.2.8 Sao Tome and Principe´
19.5.2.9 Sea Turtles of the African Mediterranean coastline (Morocco to Egypt)
19.5.2.10 Morocco
19.5.2.11 Algeria
19.5.2.12 Tunisia
19.5.2.13 Egypt
19.5.3 Marine Turtles of the Red Sea
19.6 The Way Forward
19.6.1 Habitat Protection
19.6.2 Reduction of Turtle Threat by Incidental Catch and Poaching
19.6.3 Strengthening National Legislation
19.6.4 Promoting Community Participation in Sea Turtle Conservation Efforts
19.6.5 Sensitization and Enlightenment Programmes
19.7 Conclusions
References
Chapter 20: An Overview of Environmental Resources in Africa: Emerging Issues and Sustainable Exploitation
20.1 Introduction
20.2 Environmental Resources in Africa
20.2.1 Atmospheric Resources
20.2.2 Mineral Resources
20.2.3 Water Resources
20.3 Benefits of Environmental Resources
20.3.1 Use Benefits
20.3.2 Non-use Benefits
20.4 Classification of Environmental Resources
20.5 Contribution of Selected Sectors to Sustainable Environmental Development in Africa
20.5.1 Forests
20.5.2 Biodiversity
20.5.3 Biotechnology
20.5.4 Mountains
20.5.5 Tourism
20.6 Topical and Emerging Issues Plaguing Africa´s Environmental Resources
20.6.1 Global Warming and Climate Change
20.6.2 Resource Recovery Processes
20.7 Factors Driving Environmental Resources Decline
20.7.1 Overharvesting by People
20.7.2 Habitat Changes
20.7.3 Habitat Modification
20.7.4 Habitat Fragmentation
20.7.5 Impact of Invasive Alien Species
20.8 Deforestation
20.9 Poaching Activities
20.10 Other Issues Plaguing the Resources
20.10.1 Pollution
20.10.2 Waste Disposal
20.11 Sustainable Exploitation of Environmental Resources in Africa
20.11.1 Promoting Policy Coherence amongst Integrated Multi-sectors
20.11.2 Broad-Based Governance
20.11.3 Adaptive Governance
20.11.3.1 Advantages of Adaptive Governance
20.11.3.2 Principles for Implementing Adaptive Management
20.11.4 Science, Technology, and Innovations (STI)
20.12 Possible Solutions to Decline in Environmental Resources
20.13 Conclusions
References
Chapter 21: Touristic Value of African Environment: A Socio-economic Perspective
21.1 Introduction
21.2 Touristic Resources and Socio-Economic Value of Africa´s Environment
21.2.1 Touristic Locations in Africa
21.2.1.1 Morocco
21.2.1.2 Egypt
21.2.1.3 South Africa
21.2.1.4 Tunisia
21.2.1.5 Zimbabwe
21.2.1.6 Cote d´Ivoire
21.2.1.7 Uganda
21.2.1.8 Kenya
21.2.1.9 Mauritius
21.2.1.10 eSwatini (Formerly Swaziland)
21.3 Touristic Resources in African Environment
21.3.1 Safari
21.3.2 Housing
21.3.3 Monuments
21.3.4 Nature
21.3.5 Wildlife Environments
21.3.6 Aquatic Environments
21.3.7 Fishing Destinations in Africa
21.4 Tourist Arrivals and Income Generated in African Countries
21.5 African Countries with Tourism and Travel Ready Economies
21.6 Potentials of Tourism for Socio-economic Growth
21.7 State of Tourism in Africa
21.8 Social, Economic, and Environmental Impacts of Tourism in Africa
21.8.1 Socio-economic Impact of Tourism Development in Africa
21.8.1.1 Contribution to Employment
21.8.1.2 Contribution to Business Growth and Development Opportunities
21.8.1.3 Environmental Implications of Tourism in Africa
21.8.1.4 Air Pollution
21.8.1.5 Destruction of Ecology
21.9 Sustainable Tourism Development in Africa
21.9.1 Pillars of Sustainable Tourism
21.9.1.1 Environmental Sustainability
21.9.1.2 Economic Sustainability
21.9.1.3 Socio-cultural Sustainability
21.9.2 Tourism for Sustainable Environmental and Biodiversity Management
21.9.2.1 The Concept of Biodiversity
21.9.2.2 The Intrinsic Value of Biodiversity
21.9.2.3 Anthropocentric Value of Biodiversity
21.9.2.4 Contributions of Tourism for Biodiversity Management
21.9.2.5 Positive Contributions of Tourism to Biodiversity Management
21.9.2.6 Negative Impact of Tourism on Biodiversity Management
21.10 Sustainable Development of Africa Through Sustainable Ecotourism
21.10.1 Sustainable Ecotourism: An Overview
21.10.2 Role of Sustainable Ecotourism in Sustainable Development
21.10.3 Some Sustainable Ecotourism Projects in Africa
21.11 Recommendations
21.12 Conclusions
References
Chapter 22: Environmental Sustainability: Relevance of Forensic Insects and Other Ecosystem Services in Africa
22.1 Introduction
22.2 Relevance of Insects in African Environment
22.2.1 Insects as Crops and Plants Pollinators
22.2.2 Insects as Food for Man and Animals
22.2.3 Insects in as Bio-Monitoring Agents
22.2.4 Insects as Organic Decomposers
22.3 Activities that Impact African Environment Against Insect Sustainability
22.3.1 Farming Activity
22.3.2 Use of Wood as Fossil Fuel
22.3.3 Flaring of Gas
22.3.4 Urban Waste Disposal
22.3.5 Drought, Flooding, and Climate Change in Africa
22.4 Environmental Sustainability in Africa: Forensic Insects as Crusaders
22.5 Conclusion
References
Chapter 23: Intrinsic Values of the African Environment: A Sustainable Perspective
23.1 Introduction
23.2 Renewable Resources in Africa
23.3 Non-renewable Resources in Africa
23.3.1 Coal
23.3.2 Crude Oil
23.3.3 Natural Gas
23.3.4 Minerals
23.4 Management of Non-renewable Natural Resources
23.5 African Natural Resources Base
23.5.1 River Basins
23.5.2 Wetlands
23.5.3 Lakes
23.5.4 Reservoirs
23.5.5 Species Diversity
23.5.6 Ecosystem Services
23.5.7 Fisheries
23.6 Threats to Natural Resources Base
23.7 Management and Governance of Natural Resources
23.8 Framework for Natural Resources Management
23.8.1 Natural Resource Policy
23.8.2 Legal and Regulatory Framework
23.8.3 Fiscal Regimes
23.8.4 Sustainable Development
23.9 Sustainable Development in Africa
23.10 State of Natural Resources in Africa
23.11 Importance of Natural Resources
23.11.1 Energy Source
23.11.2 Natural Capital
23.11.3 Basis for Further Scientific Studies
23.11.4 Food Source
23.11.5 Sources of Raw Materials for Industries
23.11.6 Medicinal Value
23.11.7 Further Scientific Studies
23.11.8 Provision of Shelter
23.11.9 Provision of Employment Opportunities
23.11.10 National Development
23.11.11 Ecosystem Services
23.12 Sustainable Management of African Natural Resources: Approaches and Challenges
23.12.1 Challenges
23.12.2 Approaches
23.13 Conclusions
References
Chapter 24: Toward Sustainable Biological and Environmental Policies in Africa
24.1 Introduction
24.2 Africa´s Biological and Environmental Resources
24.3 Diversity in Biological and Environmental Policies in Africa
24.4 Development of Sustainable Biological and Environmental Policies for Africa
24.5 Challenges in Policy Implementation in Africa
24.6 Future Perspectives
24.7 Conclusion
References
Index