دانلود کتاب The Middle Chalcolithic in southern Turkmenistan and the archaeological record of Ilgynly-depe

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Ancient Iran and Its Neighbours: Local Developments and Long-range Interactions in the 4th Millennium BC. — Oxbow Books, 2013. — p. 140-165.This paper presents a general review of the Middle Chalcolithic (or Namazga II period) of southern Turkmenistan (c. from the middle to the late fourth millennium BC), including periodisation and absolute chronology. An inventory of the known sites shows the rise along the piedmont of the first early towns, imposing themselves upon networks of minor rural sites. At the same time, a small number of centres in the ecologically constrained endoreic delta of the Tedjen River were fortified with defensive walls and round angular towers at a surprisingly early date. Ilgynlydepe, in the Chaacha-Meana district of the piedmont strip, shows not only fully developed crafts (pottery production, metallurgy, stone working, perhaps textiles manufacturing), but also the first hints of long-distance trade. A complex symbolic apparatus (wall paintings, formal seats, copper artefacts, stone sculptures, and terracotta figurines) appeared in special rooms, some of which might have been planned and used as steam baths or hammams rather than – as more commonly proposed – cultic buildings. We will review the research at Ilgynly-depe and also the Middle Chalcolithic funerary record of the region. Contrary to the traditional Soviet idea of Chalcolithic or “Aeneolithic” egalitarian tribal communities suddenly transformed into city states by a secondary urban revolution in the second half of the third millennium BC, early urban growth and social stratification processes were already active 1000 years before.