دانلود کتاب Tigris and Euphrates Rivers: Their Environment from Headwaters to Mouth

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Preface Contributors Acknowledgements Contents About the Editor Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 There Were a Civilization 1.2 Highlights on the Climate of Mesopotamia 1.3 Groundwater Depletion and Drought, Two Crises to Confront 1.4 International Law Perspective of the Waters of Euphrates-Tigris Rivers 1.5 Towards Restoring of the Riverine Landscapes References Part I: Historical Perspectives Chapter 2: Vertebrates of Upper Mesopotamia: Present Evidence and Archaeological Data 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Biogeographical Features 2.3 A Vanished World 2.4 The Beavers in the Khabur-Euphrates Basin 2.5 Extant Fauna. Mammals 2.6 Birds and Reptiles 2.7 Inside the Rivers and Along Their Shores 2.8 Vanishing Wild Boars 2.9 Mesopotamian Otters 2.10 Middle and Far Eastern Mongooses 2.11 Aliens from the Indian Subcontinent and Beyond 2.12 Deer of Mesopotamia 2.13 Monkeys 2.14 Syrian Elephants 2.15 The Water Buffalo 2.16 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 3: Fishing Gears and Methods: A Comparison of Ancient Mesopotamia and Other Ancient Worlds 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Fish as a Commercial Commodity 3.3 The Role of Fish Remains in Defining Fishing Gear and Sites 3.4 Fishing Gear and Practices 3.5 Similarities and Differences Between the Fishing Gears of Mesopotamia and the Other Ancient Regions of the World References Chapter 4: Ichthyological Characteristics Available in the Fish Images Existed in the Art of the Ancient Mesopotamia 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Chronology of Mesopotamia and Egypt 4.3 Ichthyological Terms 4.4 Ichthyological Description of the Fish Images 4.5 Comparison of the Inclusion of the Ichthyological Features in the Fish Images Drawn by the Ancient Mesopotamian and Egypti... Appendix 1. Chronology of Mesopotamia Appendix 2. Chronology of Ancient Egypt (Hawass 2019) References Chapter 5: The Effectiveness of Ancient Mesopotamian Medical Practices: The Example of susu-Licorice 5.1 Ancient Mesopotamian Uses of susu-Licorice in Modern Perspective 5.2 What About Accidental Poisonings by Licorice? 5.3 Conclusion References Mesopotamian Medicine Glycyrrhiza glabra/uralensis/inflata, etc in ``Traditional´´ Medicine Articles Glycyrrhiza sp. in Modern Medicine Articles Part II: The Abiotic Aspects of the Tigris-Euphrates River System Chapter 6: Management of Water Resources Using Storage Reservoirs 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Climatic and Hydrologic Conditions 6.3 Traditional Operation of Major Reservoirs 6.4 Multiple Criteria Optimization of Parametric Reservoir Operating Rule 6.4.1 Multiple Criteria Analysis 6.5 Game Theoretic Approach 6.5.1 Bargaining as an Important Aspect in Water Resources Allocation in Iraq 6.5.2 Extensive-Form Game with Imperfect Information 6.5.3 Modeling the Decision-Making Process 6.5.4 Uncertainty Regarding Nature and Players´ Decision 6.5.5 Modeling Players´ Payoff 6.5.6 Players´ Rational Decisions Constituting Equilibrium 6.6 Summary and Conclusions References Chapter 7: Estimation of Irrigated Agricultural Area and Water Consumption in Iraq 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Transboundary Water Dispute Over Tigris and Euphrates Rivers 7.1.2 Objectives of This Chapter 7.2 Framework of the Study 7.2.1 Overview of Tigris and Euphrates Rivers 7.2.2 Target AREA and Period of the Study 7.3 Estimation of Irrigated Agricultural Land of Iraq Using Satellite Remote Sensing Imageries 7.3.1 Materials and Methods 7.3.2 Results and Discussions 7.4 Water Budget Analysis of Iraq 7.4.1 Conceptualization of Water Balance of Study Area 7.4.2 Materials and Methods 7.4.3 Results and Discussions 7.5 Conclusions References Chapter 8: The Nature of Tigris-Euphrates Rivers Flow: Current Status and Future Prospective 8.1 Introduction 8.2 The Hydrological Characteristic of the Tigris-Euphrates Basin 8.2.1 Tigris River Sketch 8.2.2 Euphrates River Sketch 8.3 Tigris-Euphrates Rivers Flow Patterns 8.4 Evaluation and Future Prospective References Chapter 9: Streamflow Alteration Impacts with Particular Reference to the Lower Zab River, Tributary of the Tigris River 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Background 9.1.2 Rationale, Aim, Objectives, and Importance 9.2 Materials and Methods 9.2.1 Illustrative Case Study Area 9.2.2 Data Availability, Collection, and Analysis 9.2.3 Drought Identification 9.2.4 Hydrograph Analysis 9.2.5 Reservoir Capacity-Yield Simulation and Performance Indices 9.2.6 Methodology Application 9.3 Results and Discussion 9.3.1 Long-Term Hydro-Climatic Data Changes 9.3.2 Drought Identification and Classification 9.3.3 Anthropogenic Intervention Impact 9.3.3.1 Streamflow 9.3.3.2 Baseflow Contribution 9.3.4 Climate Change Impact 9.3.4.1 Baseflow Contribution 9.3.4.2 Streamflow and Reservoir Performance 9.4 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 10: Ecohydrology in Iraq: Challenges and its Future Pathways 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Matters on Water, Habitats, and Communal Growth in Iraq 10.3 The Existing Ecohydrology Uses and their Tests in Iraq 10.4 Developing Chances 10.5 Ecohydrology and the Freshwater Fish Biodiversity in Iraq 10.6 Ecohydrology and Fisheries Management in Iraq 10.7 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 11: Oil Pollution in the Shatt Al-Arab River and its Estuary 1980-2018 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Water Quality 11.3 Water Pollution 11.4 Water Pollution of the Shatt Al-Arab River 11.5 Materials and Methods Usually Used for Oil Pollution 11.5.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons in Water 11.5.1.1 PHC´s in the Dissolved Phase of Water 11.5.1.2 PHC´s Extraction as Suspended Particulate Matter 11.5.1.3 PHC´s in Sediments 11.5.1.4 PHC´s in Fish Samples 11.6 Results and Discussion 11.7 Conclusion 11.8 Recommendations References Chapter 12: Pesticides in the Waters, Sediments, and Biota of the Shatt Al-Arab River for the Period 1980-2017 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Methodology 12.2.1 Study Area 12.2.2 Materials 12.2.3 Sample Collection 12.2.4 Extraction of Pesticides in Environmental Samples 12.2.4.1 Water Samples 12.2.4.2 Sediment Samples 12.2.4.3 Fish Samples 12.2.5 Analysis 12.3 Results and Discussion 12.3.1 Organochlorine Pesticides in Water 12.3.2 Organochlorine Pesticides in Sediments 12.3.3 Organochlorine Pesticides in Fishes 12.4 Comparison with Worldwide Levels 12.5 Conclusion References Chapter 13: Surface Water Salinity of the Euphrates, Tigris, and Shatt al-Arab Rivers 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Tigris River 13.2.1 Tigris River Hydrology 13.2.2 Salinity and the Alteration of the River Flow Regime 13.2.3 Salinity of the Tigris River 13.2.3.1 Historical Review 13.2.3.2 Recent Salinity Analysis 13.2.3.3 Longitudinal Salinity Profile 13.2.4 Lake Tharthar 13.3 The Euphrates River 13.3.1 Euphrates River Hydrology 13.3.2 The Euphrates Salinity 13.3.2.1 History of Salinity Variation 13.3.2.2 Recent Changes in Salinity 13.3.2.3 The Euphrates Salinity Profile within Iraq 13.3.3 The Euphrates Salinity Causes within Iraq 13.3.3.1 Decrease of Inflow from the Upper Euphrates 13.3.3.2 Flow Diversion from the Tigris Through Lake Tharthar to the Euphrates 13.3.3.3 Iraqi Irrigation Return Flow 13.3.3.4 Groundwater Discharge 13.4 Shatt al-Arab Waterway 13.4.1 Hydrology of Shatt al-Arab 13.4.2 Salinity of Shatt al-Arab 13.4.2.1 Salinity Issues for the Shatt al-Arab 13.4.2.2 Salinity Analysis at Basra 13.4.2.3 The Shatt al-Arab and the Marshes 13.5 Water Salinity Management Options References Chapter 14: Renewable Energy for Water-Energy Nexus in Euphrates and Tigris River Basin: A Literature Review 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Water-Energy Nexus 14.3 Quantifying Water-Energy Nexus 14.3.1 Water Usage in Energy Production 14.3.1.1 Water in Hydropower Stations 14.3.1.2 Water in Thermal Power Stations 14.3.1.3 Water in Bioenergy 14.3.1.4 Water in Fossil Energy Extraction and Distribution 14.3.2 Energy Consumption in the Water Sector 14.4 Renewable Energy in the ETRB 14.4.1 Renewables for Power; Resources, Current Trend and Potentials in the ETRB 14.4.1.1 Hydropower 14.4.1.2 Solar Energy 14.4.1.3 Wind Energy Resources 14.4.1.4 Biomass Energy Resources and Biofuels 14.4.1.5 Geothermal Energy Resources 14.4.1.6 Ocean, Wave and Tide Resources 14.4.1.7 Hydrogen and Fuel Cells 14.4.1.8 Summary of the Renewables Status in the ETRB Riparian States 14.4.2 Energy Storage Technologies 14.4.3 Renewables for Water Technologies 14.4.3.1 Renewable Energy in Waste Treatment 14.4.3.2 Renewable Energy in Water Pumping and Conveyance 14.4.3.3 Renewable Energy for Heat 14.5 Conclusion References Chapter 15: Impacts of Dams on Aquatic Biodiversity, Fisheries, Fishes and Their Environment: Problems that Could Be Present i... 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Ancient Mesopotamians and Irrigation Problems 15.3 Impacts of Dams 15.3.1 Ecological Impacts 15.3.1.1 Impact on Water Temperature 15.3.1.2 Impact on Sediment Transport 15.3.1.3 Impact on Connectivity 15.3.1.4 Impact on Biogeochemical Cycles 15.3.2 Impact on the Organisms 15.3.2.1 Impact on Plankton 15.3.2.2 Impact on Macroinvertebrates 15.3.2.3 Impact on Fishes 15.3.3 Impact on Fish Migration 15.3.4 Impact on Aquatic Biodiversity 15.4 Recommendations References Chapter 16: Water, Politics and Dams in the Mesopotamia Basin of the Northern Middle East: How Turkey Instrumentalises the Sou... 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Background 16.3 Doing Politics with Dams: The Economic Response 16.4 Doing Politics with Dams: The Security Response 16.5 Forced Migration 16.6 The Northern Middle East 16.7 Transnational Conflicts 16.8 Conclusions Bibliography Chapter 17: Dams and their Impacts on Fishes in Iran 17.1 Brief Overview of Dam Impacts 17.2 Damming History and Dams in Iran 17.3 How Did Dams Change Aquatic Ecosystems in Iran? 17.4 Freshwater Fishes of Iran 17.5 Artificial Reservoirs, Suitable Habitats for Exotic Species 17.6 Dams Impact on Fish Diversity and Richness in Iran 17.7 Dams Impacts on Migratory Fishes in Iran 17.8 Morphologic and Genetic Differentiation in Fishes Caused by Dams 17.9 Dam Impacts on Fish Population Structures and Biological Characteristics 17.10 What Can We do in Regard to the Irresponsible Damming? References Part III: The Biotic Aspects of the Tigris-Euphrates River System Chapter 18: Preliminary Review of the Aquatic Biodiversity in Al-Kahla River, Missan Province, Iraq 18.1 Introduction 18.2 The Biodiversity of Aquatic Micro-organisms of Al-Kahla River 18.2.1 Fungi Groups 18.2.1.1 The Role of Fungi in the Ecosystem 18.2.1.2 Threats and Sensitivities 18.2.2 Flora of Micro-Algae 18.2.2.1 The Role of Micro-Algae in the Ecosystem 18.2.2.2 Threats and Sensitivities 18.2.3 Zooplankton 18.2.3.1 Role and Importance of Zooplankton in the Freshwater Ecosystem Threats and Sensitivities 18.2.4 Meiofauna 18.2.4.1 Significance of Meiofauna in Al-Kahla River Ecosystem Threats and Sensitivities 18.3 Mosses and Ferns in the River Al-Kahla 18.4 Flora of Higher Aquatic Plants 18.4.1 Role of Aquatic Macrophytes in the Riverine Environment 18.4.1.1 Threats and Sensitivities 18.5 Invertebrate Fauna 18.5.1 Role of Invertebrates in the Freshwater System 18.5.2 Endemic and Threatened Invertebrate Species in Al-Kahla River 18.5.2.1 Threats and Sensitivities 18.6 The Vertebrate Fauna of Al-Kahla River 18.6.1 Ichthyofauna 18.6.1.1 Freshwater Fish Species Exotic Fish Species in the Marshes Marine Fish Species 18.6.2 The Use of Inland Water System as Necessary Grounds for Fish 18.6.3 Human Use of Fish 18.6.4 Threats and Sensitivities 18.7 Herpetofauna of the Al-Kahla River 18.7.1 Role of Amphibian and Reptilian Species in the Aquatic Environment 18.7.1.1 Threats and Sensitivities 18.8 Aquatic Avifauna of Al-Kahla River 18.8.1 The Role of Aquatic Birds in the River Environment 18.8.1.1 Threats and Sensitivities 18.9 Mammals Living in the Vicinity of Al-Kahla River 18.9.1 The Role of Mammals in the River Environment 18.9.1.1 Threats and Sensitivities 18.10 Factors Affecting the Aquatic Biodiversity of Al-Kahla River Other than Changing Water Masses References Chapter 19: Freshwater Fish Biodiversity in Iraq: Importance, Threats, Status, and Conservation Challenges 19.1 Introduction 19.2 Iraq Freshwater Riches 19.2.1 Fishes 19.2.1.1 Freshwater Fish Diversity 19.2.1.2 Discrepancies in the Nomenclature of the Freshwater Fish of Iraq Over Time 19.2.1.3 Competition with the Native Species 19.2.1.4 Range Extension 19.2.1.5 Endangered Freshwater Fishes of Iraq Groups of the Threatened Fishes of Iraq 19.2.1.6 Threats 19.2.1.7 The Advantageous the Iraq Freshwater Fish Biodiversity 19.2.1.8 Conservation Measures References Chapter 20: Effect of Climate Changes on the Freshwater Biodiversity in the Mesopotamian Plain: Recommendations for Avoidance ... 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Historical Record of the Climatic Changes in the Mesopotamian Plain 20.3 The Current Climate of the Mesopotamian Plain 20.4 Predictable Designs of Climate Alteration and Freshwater Habitats 20.5 Climate Change Impacts on Water Resources in the Mesopotamian Plain 20.5.1 Effects of Climate Change on Flow of Rivers 20.5.2 Expected Changes to the Rainfall and Internal Water Resources in the Mesopotamian Plain 20.6 Anthropogenic Impacts and the Climate Changes 20.6.1 Acidification 20.6.2 Eutrophication 20.6.3 Land Cover Alterations 20.6.4 Alien Species 20.7 Species Adaptation to Climate Changes in Freshwater Biodiversity and Conservation 20.7.1 Protected Areas 20.7.2 Large and Environmentally Heterogeneous Areas 20.7.3 Species Dispersal Paths 20.7.4 Environment Restoration and Controlling 20.8 Suggested Recommendations for Management of the Climatic Changes Effects on the Freshwater Ecosystem in the Mesopotamian ... References Chapter 21: River Corridors as a Refuge for Freshwater Biodiversity: Basic Information and Recommendations to the Policymakers... 21.1 Introduction 21.2 The Contribution of Streams and Springs to Biodiversity in River Networks 21.3 River Corridors 21.3.1 Planning to Build River´s Corridor 21.3.2 How to Evaluate the Effectiveness of Corridor 21.4 Public Awareness of River Corridors 21.5 Protection of River Corridors 21.6 Recommendations to the Policymakers in Iraq About Creating River Corridors in Their Country References Chapter 22: Biodiversity of Fungi in Aquatic Environment of Iraq 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Taxonomic Studies on Aquatic Fungi of Iraq 22.3 Ecological Studies on Aquatic Fungi 22.4 Biodiversity of Aquatic Fungi of Iraq 22.5 Fungi from Submerged Substrates in Aquatic Habitats of Iraq 22.6 Transient Fungi in Aquatic Habitats of Iraq 22.7 Conclusions References Chapter 23: Potability of Drinking Water in Basra-Iraq 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Water Supplies to Basrah 23.3 Chemical Analysis 23.3.1 Total Dissolved Solids 23.3.2 Bacteriological Studies 23.4 Conclusion References Chapter 24: Algal Studies in Iraqi Inland Waters. A Review 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Brief History of Algal Studies in Iraq 24.3 The Present Status of Algal Studies in Iraq 24.4 Remarks and Conclusion References Chapter 25: The Distribution of Epilitic Diatoms in the Turkish Part of the Tigris-Euphrates River Basin 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Materials and Methods 25.2.1 Sample Collection 25.2.2 Sample Processing, Observation, and Identification 25.2.3 Diatom Abundance 25.3 Results 25.4 Discussion References Chapter 26: Plant Biodiversity in Shatt Al-Arab Estuary and Ecological Variations 26.1 Introduction 26.2 History of Shatt al-Arab River 26.3 Geomorphology of Shatt al-Arab 26.4 Salinity in Shatt al-Arab River 26.5 Climate Changes and Challenges 26.6 Pollution in Shatt al-Arab River 26.7 Plants of Shatt al-Arab River and Its Branches References Chapter 27: Medicinal Plants of Shatt al-Arab River and Adjacent Area 27.1 Introduction 27.2 Historical Review 27.3 The Ecology of Medicinal Plants 27.4 Description and Therapeutic Value of Plants Recommended literature Chapter 28: The Role of Plants as a Canopy in the Inland Waters: Basic Information for Application in Iraq 28.1 Introduction 28.2 The Role of Stream Bank Plantation in Improving and Protecting Chemical Water Quality 28.3 The Date Palm: THE Main Canopy Vegetation in Stream Area in Iraq 28.4 Socioeconomic and Traditional Importance of Dates 28.5 Degradation of Date Palm Trees in the Arab Countries: Indicators and Causes 28.6 Wildfire as an Ecological Factor for Streams 28.7 Effect of Fire on the Soil of the Stream: Case of the Southern Marshes of Iraq 28.8 Decreasing Plant Cover Due to the Environmental Changes: Case of Southern of Iraq 28.9 Why Restorations are Needed References Chapter 29: The Zooplankton Fauna of the Turkish Part of the Euphrates-Tigris River Basin 29.1 Introduction 29.2 Materials and Methods 29.3 Results and Discussion References Chapter 30: Kinds and Distribution of Icthyoplankton in Shatt Al-Arab River 30.1 Introduction 30.1.1 Shatt Al-Arab River 30.2 Community Structure of Icthyoplankton in Shatt Al-Arab River 30.3 Specific Composition of Fish Larvae in Shatt Al-Arab River 30.4 Feeding Habits and Strategy of Fish Larvae 30.5 Fish Eggs in Shatt Al-Arab River 30.5.1 Fish Egg Distribution 30.6 Discussion References Chapter 31: Rotifer Diversity in Iranian Waters: A Review 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Geography, Climate and Hydrology of Iranian Plateau 31.3 A Biodiversity Hotspot 31.4 Rotifer Survey in Iran 31.5 Notes on Iranian and Regional Rotifer Diversity References Chapter 32: Biodiversity of the Freshwater Amphipods in Iran 32.1 Introduction 32.2 The Iranian Plateau and the Tigris-Euphrates Basin 32.3 The Amphipod Fauna 32.4 Amphipod Biogeography in Iran 32.5 Conclusions and Future Research Priorities References Chapter 33: The Freshwater Molluscs of the Mesopotamian Plain 33.1 Introduction 33.2 Distribution and Species Richness of Molluscs of Mesopotamia 33.3 Diversity of Gastropoda 33.4 Diversity of Bivalvia 33.5 Major Threats to Molluscan Fauna References Chapter 34: Freshwater Annelida of Iraq 34.1 Class Polychaetes 34.2 Class Clitellates 34.2.1 Subclass Hirudinea (Leeches) 34.2.2 Subclass Oligochaetes 34.3 Sampling Techniques of Aquatic Oligochaete 34.4 Preservation and Mounting 34.5 Identification Criteria 34.6 The Setae or Chaetae 34.7 Family Naididae 34.7.1 Subfamily Naidinae 34.7.2 Subfamily Tubificinae References Chapter 35: A Critical Checklist of the Inland Fishes Native to the Euphrates and Tigris Drainages 35.1 Introduction 35.2 Coverage 35.3 Check List 35.4 Discussion 35.4.1 Marine and Euryhyaline Fishes in the Shatt Al-Arab References Chapter 36: Fish Fauna of Shatt al-Arab River, Basrah, Iraq: A More than Quarter a Century of Changes 36.1 Introduction 36.2 Fish Species Nomenclature Changes 36.3 Introductions and Range Extensions 36.4 Decadal Analysis of the Fish Fauna of Shatt al-Arab River References Chapter 37: The Common Carp, Cyprinus carpio: Effect on the Environment and the Indigenous Fish Species in Iraq 37.1 Introduction 37.2 The Effects of the Common Carp on the Environmental Factors in the Aquatic Ecosystem 37.3 The Effects of the Common Carp on the Invertebrate Communities in the Aquatic Ecosystem 37.4 The Effects of the Common Carp on the Native Fish Species in the Aquatic Ecosystem 37.5 The Status of the Common Carp in the Freshwater System in Iraq 37.5.1 Common Carp Composition and Distribution in the Inland Waters of Iraq 37.5.2 Lakes 37.5.2.1 Al-Rathwania Lake Habbaniyah Lake Tharthar Lake Razzazah Lake Hamrin Dam Lake Dukan Dam Lake 37.5.2.2 Euphrates River Middle Region Southern Region 37.5.2.3 Tigris River 37.5.2.4 Shatt al-Arab River 37.5.2.5 The Marshes 37.5.2.6 Shatt al-Basrah Canal 37.5.3 Reproduction 37.5.4 Condition Factor 37.5.5 General Conclusion 37.6 Recommendation for Common Carp Management References Chapter 38: The Good and the Bad in Releasing the Grass Carp Ctenopharyngodon idella in the Freshwater System: Recommendations... 38.1 Introduction 38.2 General Information about the Grass Carp 38.2.1 Identification and Short Description 38.2.2 Distribution 38.2.3 Biology of the Grass Carp 38.2.3.1 Age and Growth 38.2.4 Tolerances 38.2.4.1 Reproductive Biology 38.2.4.2 Food and Feeding Habit 38.3 The Possibility of Using Grass Carp in Controlling Aquatic Vegetation 38.4 Stocking of Grass Carp for Controlling Aquatic Vegetation 38.5 Changes in Aquatic Plant Pattern and Plankton Composition 38.6 Changes in Water Quality and Benthos 38.7 The Effects of Grass Carp on the Environment and Biota of the Freshwater Systems 38.7.1 Effects on the Sediment Chemistry 38.7.2 Effects on Phytoplankton 38.7.3 Effects on Zooplankton 38.7.4 Effects on Zoobenthos 38.7.5 Effects on Fish Communities 38.7.6 Effects on Amphibian and Water Bird Communities 38.7.7 Effects on Aquatic Macrophyte Community 38.7.8 Effects on Eutrophication and Water Quality 38.8 Position of the Grass Carp in the Iraqi Inland Waters 38.8.1 Recommendations for Management of Stocking and Release of Grass Carp References Chapter 39: The Avifauna of Tigris and Euphrates River Basin 39.1 Introduction 39.2 The Geographical Landscape of Iraq 39.3 Important Bird Areas in Iraq 39.4 Birds of the Upper Tigris and Euphrates Basin 39.5 The Avifauna of Central Iraq 39.6 Mesopotamian Marshes, an Important Site for Breeding and Migrant Birds 39.7 Birds of the Coastal Habitats at the Head of the Arabian Gulf 39.8 Major Threats on the Avifauna of Iraq References Chapter 40: The Feasible Approaches to Assist Migratory Birds Visiting the Southern Reaches of Mesopotamia 40.1 Introduction 40.2 Protection of the Migratory Birds 40.3 Why Iraq should Care About Migratory Birds Assess them While They are on Transient Visa in its Land 40.3.1 Recent Iraq Initiatives Toward Bird´s Conservation 40.4 Recent Bird´s Observation in Iraq 40.5 Possible Approaches to Assist Migratory Birds in the Southern Part of Iraq 40.5.1 Artificial Nests 40.5.1.1 Highlights of the Results of Using Artificial Nests 40.5.2 Light to Assess Nocturnally Migrating Birds 40.5.2.1 Highlights of the Results on Assessing Nocturnal Migratory Birds References Chapter 41: A Proposal for Establishing Bird Observatory Centre in the South of Iraq 41.1 Introduction 41.2 How Avian Data that Will Be Available at the Observatory Centre Be Useful? 41.3 General Rules and Policies of the Observatory 41.3.1 Migration Monitoring Programme 41.3.2 Migration Monitoring Field Operations 41.3.2.1 Overview of the Migration Monitoring Protocol 41.3.2.2 Daily Banding Routine 41.3.2.3 Bird Catching Effort 41.3.2.4 Daily Census Reference Chapter 42: The Potential Role of Waterbirds as a Vector in Dispersing Invertebrates and Plants in the South of Iraq 42.1 Introduction 42.2 Steps in Dispersal of Plants and Invertebrates by Waterbirds 42.3 External Transport: Can Propagules Adhere to Waterbirds? 42.4 The Long-Distance Dispersal of Invertebrates 42.5 Waterbirds Versus the Invasive Species 42.5.1 Methods of Disperse Alien Species by Waterbirds 42.5.1.1 Emigration 42.5.1.2 Movement and Transport 42.5.1.3 Immigration 42.6 The Negative Issues in the Dispersal of Plants and Invertebrates by Waterbirds 42.7 Future Studies and Recommendations References Chapter 43: The Wild Mammals of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers Basin 43.1 Introduction 43.2 Wild Mammals of Iraq, Taxonomic Revisions, Distribution, and Conservation Status 43.3 The Wild Mammals of the Lower Tigris and Euphrates Basin (Mesopotamian Marshes) 43.4 Threats on Wild Mammals of Iraq References Chapter 44: The Amphibians and Reptiles of Euphrates and Tigris Basin 44.1 Introduction 44.2 A Short History of Herpetology and Herpetological Publications in Mesopotamia 44.3 Mesopotamian Biogeography Relative to Reptiles and Amphibians Distribution 44.4 Amphibians and Reptiles of Euphrates and Tigris River Basin 44.5 Checklist of Amphibians in Mesopotamia 44.6 Checklist of Reptilians in Mesopotamia 44.7 Freshwater Amphibians and Reptiles in the Euphrates and Tigris River Drainages 44.8 Threats to Freshwater Herpetofauna in the Euphrates and Tigris River Basin 44.9 Conclusion References Chapter 45: A Preliminary Pictorial Guide to the Herpetofauna of Tigris and Euphrates River Basin 45.1 Introduction 45.2 Annotated Checklist of Amphibians and Reptiles of Tigris and Euphrates River Basin References Chapter 46: Policy Guidance for Sustainable Aquaculture in the Inland Waters of Iraq 46.1 Introduction 46.2 Sustainable Aquaculture 46.3 Benefits of Aquaculture 46.4 Risks of Aquaculture 46.5 Codes of Conduct 46.6 Best Management Practices 46.7 Recommendations References Chapter 47: How Possible to Use the Desert Area in Iraq for Aquaculture Industry: Basic Facts and Recommondations 47.1 Introduction 47.2 Appropriate Species for Desert Aquaculture 47.3 Benefits and the Drawbacks of Desert Aquaculture 47.3.1 Strategies Supporting the Desert Aquaculture 47.4 Types of Farming Systems 47.5 Recommondations References Chapter 48: Aquaculture Industry in Iraq: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives 48.1 Introduction 48.2 Water Resources for Aquaculture 48.3 Cultivated Species 48.4 Aquaculture Systems and Production 48.4.1 Earthen Pond System 48.4.1.1 Pond Specifications 48.4.1.2 Multi-Size Polyculture Technique 48.4.1.3 Economic Feasibility 48.4.2 Closed Systems 48.4.3 Floating Cages 48.4.4 Fish Farming in the Marshes 48.5 Fish Feeding and Feed Plants 48.6 Hatcheries and Fish Seeds Production 48.6.1 Hatchery Specifications 48.6.2 The Brooder Stock 48.6.3 Induced Spawning Procedure 48.6.4 Larviculture 48.7 Fish Marketing 48.7.1 Economical Aspects 48.8 Future Steps References Chapter 49: Towards an Improved Tilapia Farming in Iraq: Recommendations for Future Application 49.1 Introduction 49.2 Synopsis of the Aquaculture Activities in South of Iraq 49.2.1 Some Factors Shown to Hinder the Aquaculture Industry in Iraq 49.2.1.1 Environmental Factors 49.2.1.2 Availability of Fish Fingerlings and Fish Food 49.2.2 Fish Farms in Iraq 49.3 Tilapia as a Global Important Food Fish 49.3.1 Genetics 49.3.2 Nutrition 49.3.3 BioFlocs 49.3.4 Agricultural Plant Wastes 49.3.5 Production Systems and Locations 49.3.5.1 Diversity of Production Modes 49.3.5.2 Geographic Distribution 49.3.5.3 Low Cost Production Costs 49.3.6 Polyculture 49.4 General Problems and Solutions in Tilapia Culture: Problems and Solutions 49.5 Extensive Culture 49.5.1 Pond Culture 49.5.2 Semi-Intensive Culture (Ponds) 49.5.3 Intensive Culture 49.5.3.1 Cages 49.5.3.2 Integrated Tilapia and Shrimp Production 49.6 Development of Technologies and Tilapia Farming 49.7 Recommendations References Chapter 50: Information and Recommendations of Aquaculture Stress and its Source in Hatcheries: The Iraqi Aquaculture Industry... 50.1 Introduction 50.2 Causes of Stress in Hatchery 50.2.1 Water Temperature 50.2.2 pH of Water 50.2.3 Photoperiod 50.2.4 Mechanical Stress 50.3 Consequences of Stress 50.3.1 Stress and Immune System 50.3.2 Stress and Diseases 50.3.3 Stress and Reproductive Inhibition 50.3.4 Stress and Reduced Feeding Behavior and Growth 50.3.5 Stress and Behavioral Response 50.4 Signs of Stress in Fish 50.4.1 Cellular and Molecular Indicators 50.4.2 Primary and Secondary Physiological Indicators 50.4.3 Whole-Organism Indicators 50.5 Recommendations References Chapter 51: Exotic and Invasive Freshwater Fishes in the Tigris-Euphrates River System 51.1 Introduction 51.2 The Tigris-Euphrates Basin 51.3 The Tigris River 51.4 The Euphrates River 51.5 Materials and Methods 51.6 Results 51.7 Discussion References Part IV: Water Resources Chapter 52: The Ecology and Modelling of the Freshwater Ecosystems in Iran 52.1 Introduction 52.2 Biodiversity of Plants and Animals 52.3 Freshwaters of Iran 52.4 Usual Habitats 52.4.1 Freshwater Spring-Stream Systems 52.5 Fish Diversity of Iran 52.6 Environmental Concerns of Iranian Freshwater 52.6.1 Human Pressures 52.6.1.1 Land-Use Pressures Deforestation Overgrazing Agricultural Land Use (Fig. 52.11) Urban Land Use (Fig. 52.12) 52.6.1.2 Hydrological Pressures 52.6.1.3 Connectivity Pressures 52.6.1.4 Water Quality Pressures 52.6.1.5 Morphological Pressures 52.6.1.6 Biological Pressures 52.6.1.7 Global Climate Change 52.7 Case Study 1 52.7.1 Study Area and Site Selection 52.7.2 Fish Sampling As Well as Environmental and Human Pressures Data Measurements 52.7.3 Regional Pressure Index (RPI) Calculation 52.7.4 Fish Metrics Description 52.7.5 Determination and Assessment of Predictor Variables 52.7.6 Fish Metrics Prediction 52.7.7 Testing Sensitivity of Fish Metrics to Human Pressures 52.7.8 Index Calculation, Scoring, and Validation 52.7.9 Results for Salmonid Zone 52.7.10 Results for Cyprinid Zone 52.7.11 Conclusion 52.8 Case Study 2 52.8.1 Study Area and Fish Data 52.8.2 Environmental Predictor Variables 52.8.3 Modelling by SDM Tool 52.8.4 Results of Modelling 52.9 General Conclusion References Chapter 53: Enhancing Rural Women´s Participation in Fisheries in Iraq 53.1 Introduction 53.2 How to Achieve the Goal 53.3 Women and Technology 53.4 Inferences for Women 53.5 Areas of Women´s Participation 53.6 Women in Fisheries in Asia as an Example 53.7 Recommendations References Chapter 54: The Impact of Destructive Fishing Gear on the Fish Biodiversity in the Inland Waters of Iraq 54.1 Introduction 54.2 Poverty and the Use of Destructive Fishing Gear 54.3 Review of the Destructive Fishing Methods 54.3.1 Electrofishing 54.3.1.1 Harmful Effects of Electrofishing on Fishes Types of Injuries Caused by Electric Shock Injuries Additional to the Spinal-Associated Injuries Spinal Related Injuries 54.3.1.2 Effects of Electrofishing on Invertebrate Fauna 54.3.1.3 Use of Electrofishing in Iraq 54.3.1.4 Recommendations 54.3.2 Poison Fishing 54.3.2.1 Poison Fishing with Chemicals Poison Fishing with Cyanide Effects of Insecticides on the Aquatic Life 54.3.2.2 Insecticides Fishing in Iraq 54.3.2.3 Plant Poison Fishing Plant Species Used in Poison Fishing The Structure and the Mechanism of the Plant Poison Used for Fishing Purposes Plant Poison Fishing in Iraq 54.3.2.4 Blast or Bomb Fishing Blast or Bomb Fishing in Iraq Recommendations References Chapter 55: Evaluating Variations in Fisheries by Means of Fishers´ Information: Suggested Methodology to Improve Small-Scale ... 55.1 Introduction 55.2 The General Plan of the Methodology 55.3 How Useful the Fishers Knowledge about the Small-Scale Fisheries 55.4 Characteristics of the Methodology 55.5 Example on the Expected Results of Fishers´ Interview 55.6 Use of Fishers´ Knowledge in Predicting Climate Changes References Chapter 56: A Possibility to Apply a Traditional Fisheries Enforcement Programme in the Inland Waters of Iraq 56.1 Introduction 56.2 Historical Background 56.3 The Traditional Fisheries Sector in Iraq 56.4 Suggestions for the Iraqi Government to Introduce Fisheries Lawmaking and Implementation Actions 56.5 Key Points of the Enforcement Programme References Chapter 57: Market-Resource Relations and Fish Seller Livelihood as Seen in Inland Waters of Iraq 57.1 Introduction 57.2 Small-Scale Retailing and Artisanal Fishing 57.3 Commodity Chains 57.4 Types of Fish Markets in Iraq 57.5 Important Questions Need to be Asked in Relation to the Market and the Riverine Livelihoods in Southern Iraq 57.6 Livelihoods Perspectives and Small-Scale Fisheries Management and Development References Chapter 58: The Potential Impact of Deformities in Fishes upon Aquatic Production: Case of Iraq 58.1 Introduction 58.2 Review of the Fish Deformities so Far Reported from Freshwater and Marine Fish Species of Iraq 58.3 Selected Major Incidences of Injuries and Deformities in Fishes in General 58.4 Conclusions and Suggestions References Chapter 59: The Impact of some Social Taboos on Fisheries in Iraq 59.1 Introduction 59.2 Species-Specific Taboos 59.3 The Historical and Religious Aspects of Fish Taboos 59.4 Fish Taboos in Iraq 59.5 Aquatic Organism Included in the Food Taboos Practised in Iraq 59.5.1 Species of Scaleless Fish 59.5.1.1 Catfish Species 59.5.1.2 Species Account of the Catfishes 59.5.2 Species of eel Group 59.5.2.1 Freshwater eel Species 59.5.2.2 Marine eel Species 59.5.3 Cartilaginous Fishes 59.5.3.1 Sharks and Rays Species Content of Iraq 59.6 The Effects of Fish Taboos on the Socio-Economic of the Fishers and the Iraq References Chapter 60: Inland Water Fishes and Fisheries in Iran 60.1 Inland Fishing and Fisheries in Iran References Chapter 61: The Possibility of Introducing an Inland Fisheries Education in Iraq 61.1 Introduction 61.2 Summary of the History of the Higher Education in Iraq 61.3 Fisheries Education in Iraq 61.3.1 Undergraduate Education 61.3.2 Postgraduate Education 61.4 Dissemination of the Knowledge 61.4.1 Scientific Journals 61.4.2 Other Publications by Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research (MHESR) in Iraq 61.5 Fisheries Education Needs 61.6 Recommendations to Set and Improve Fisheries Education in Iraq References Chapter 62: The Marine and Diadromous Fisheries of Iraq 62.1 The Large-Scale Marine Fisheries of Iraq 62.2 The Small-Scale Marine Fisheries of Iraq 62.3 Discarded Catch 62.4 Discussion References Part V: Stress of the Environment of the Two Rivers Chapter 63: Fish Deformities in the Freshwater Fishes of Iraq: A Short Review and a Study Case on the Indian Catfish Heteropne... 63.1 Introduction 63.2 Fish Abnormality Studies in Iraq. 63.3 Effect of Heavy Metals on Fish 63.4 Loss of Pelvic Fins in the Indian Catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis Collected from Al-Hammar Marsh, Basrah, Iraq-a Study C... 63.5 Future Research References Chapter 64: The Phenomenon of Fluctuating Asymmetry: As Fish Welfare Indicator Represented by Case Study from the Freshwater F... 64.1 Introduction 64.2 Fish Fluctuating Asymmetry Studies 64.3 Fluctuating Asymmetry Studies in Iraq 64.4 Asymmetry Measurement 64.5 Bilateral Asymmetry in the Indian Catfish Collected from Several Localities in Iraq: A Case Study 64.5.1 Overview 64.5.2 Methodology 64.5.2.1 Study Area 64.5.2.2 Chemical Analyses of Organochlorine Pesticides and Heavy Metals in Surficial Sediments 64.5.3 Data analysis 64.5.3.1 Probability of Toxicity 64.5.3.2 Fluctuating Asymmetry 64.5.3.3 Heavy Metals Data Analysis 64.5.4 Fish Samples 64.6 Results and Discussion 64.7 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 65: The Studies on Sediments Pollution by Different Types of Metals in Turkey 65.1 The Previous Studies on Sediments Pollution of Euphrates-Tigris Rivers, Turkey with Metals 65.1.1 The Euphrates River Sediments 65.1.2 The Tigris River Sediments 65.1.3 Investigation on the Other Surface Waters and Sediments in Turkey 65.2 Material and Methods Used in the Pollution of Sediments of Euphrates-Tigris Rivers, with Metals in Turkey 65.3 Review of the Euphrates-Tigris River Sediment´s Pollution by Metals in Turkey References Chapter 66: Macroplastic and Microplastic in the Freshwater Environment of Southern Iraq: Evidences Obtained from Freshwater F... 66.1 Introduction 66.2 Features of the Microplastics 66.2.1 Shape 66.2.2 Particle Size 66.2.3 Color 66.2.4 Surface Texture 66.3 Freshwater Fish Species as an Evidence for Plastic Contamination in Iraq 66.4 The Evidence of the Presence Macro- and Microplastic in the Stomach of Iraqi Fish Species 66.5 The Future Next Steps and Opportunities References Chapter 67: Heavy Metals in Freshwater Invertebrates of Iran: A Review on the Bioaccumulation and Effects 67.1 Introduction 67.2 Brief Review of the Relevant Studies 67.3 Conclusions References Chapter 68: Fish Parasites of Tigris and Euphrates River Systems 68.1 The Impact of Parasites on the Host 68.2 Recorded Parasites from Tigris and Euphrates River Systems 68.3 Major Groups of Parasites Detected from Tigris and Euphrates River Systems 68.4 Conclusion References Chapter 69: The Parasites of Fishes of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers: Iraq and Turkey 69.1 Introduction 69.2 The Importance of Fish Parasites 69.3 The Euphrates and Tigris Rivers 69.4 Freshwater Fish Fauna of Euphrates and Tigris Rivers of Iraq and Turkey 69.5 The Parasite Diversity of the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers of Iraq and Turkey References Chapter 70: Ornamental Fishes: A Looming Danger for Inland Fish Diversity of Iraq 70.1 Introduction 70.2 Invasive Fish Species of Iraq 70.2.1 Food Fish Species 70.2.1.1 Family Cyprinidae Carasobarbus sublimus (Coad and Najafpour, 1997) Gibel Carp, Carassius gibelio (Bloch 1782) Common Carp, Cyprinus carpio Hemiculter leucisculus (Basilewsky, 1855) 70.2.1.2 Family Cichlidae Coptodon zillii (Gervais, 1848) Oreochromis aureus (Steindacher, 1864) The Nile Tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) 70.2.1.3 Family: Xenocyrididae Ctenopharyngodon idella (Valenciennes in Cuvier and Valenciennes, 1844) Silver Carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix Hypophthalmichthys nobilis (Richardson, 1844) 70.2.2 Medical Purposes Fish Species 70.2.2.1 Family: Poeciliidae Mosquito Fish, Gambusia holbrooki Girard, 1859 The Indian Catfish, Heteropneustes fossilis (Bloch, 1794) 70.2.3 Ornamental Fish Species 70.2.3.1 Family: Poeciliidae Sailfin Mollie, Poecilia latipinna (Lesueur, 1821) 70.2.3.2 Family: Pangassidae The Striped Catfish, Pangasianodon hypophthalmus (Sauvage, 1878) 70.2.3.3 Family: Lepisosteidae The Alligator Gar, Atractosteus spatula (Lacepède, 1803) 70.2.3.4 Family: Serrasalmidae The Speckled Piranha, Serrasalmus maculatus Kner, 1858 70.3 Negative Side of the Aquarium Trade 70.3.1 The Disease Risks 70.3.2 Ecological Impact 70.3.3 Economic Impacts 70.4 Recommendations References Part VI: The Health of the Human Community Inhabiting Freshwater Zones Chapter 71: Aquatic Snails as a Vector of Diseases to the Human in Iran 71.1 Introduction 71.2 Human Fascioliasis 71.3 Human Schistosomiasis 71.4 Human Cercarial Dermatitis 71.5 Human Dicrocoeliasis References Chapter 72: Death by Drowning in Rivers in Iraq 72.1 Introduction 72.2 The Risk of the Rivers 72.3 Factors Affecting and Assisting in Drowning 72.3.1 Geography and Shape of Aquatic Environments 72.3.2 Additional Environmental Factors 72.3.3 Open-Air Aquatic Environmental Factors 72.4 Future Method to Investigate Drowning-Related Deaths in Iraq 72.4.1 The Protocol 72.4.2 The Expected Results of the Survey 72.4.3 The Outcome of the Survey Analysis 72.5 The Impact of Lack of Legislation Governing Water Safety and Drowning Prevention 72.6 Solicitation to Prevention References Chapter 73: The Dangerous Catfish Species in the Freshwater System of Iraq: First Time Reports on Cases of Envenomation 73.1 Introduction 73.2 Case Reports 73.2.1 Family Bagridae 73.2.1.1 Mystus pelusius 73.2.1.2 Conclusion 73.2.2 Family Siluridae 73.2.2.1 Parasilurus triostegus 73.2.2.2 Conclusion 73.2.3 Family Heteropneustidae 73.2.3.1 Heteropneustes fossilis 73.2.3.2 Conclusions References Chapter 74: Fish Species of the Order Cypriniformes as a Source of Ichthyootoxin and Ichthyogallotoxin in Iraq: Cases Reports 74.1 Introduction 74.2 Cases Reports 74.2.1 Ichthyootoxication 74.2.2 Ichthyogallotoxication 74.3 Conclusion References Chapter 75: First Reports on Cases of Hallucinatory Fish Poisoning (Ichthyoallyeinotoxism) and Scombrotoxic Fish Poisoning in ... 75.1 Introduction 75.2 Hallucinatory Fish Poisoning (Ichthyoallyeinotoxism) 75.2.1 Case Report No. 1 75.2.2 Case Report No. 2 75.2.3 Remarks 75.3 Scombrotoxic Fish Poisoning 75.3.1 Case Report No. 1 75.3.2 Remarks References Part VII: Conservation Chapter 76: Freshwater Management and Conservation in Iran: Past, Present, and Future 76.1 Introduction 76.2 Freshwater Management and Conservation in the Past: Traditional Water Management System 76.2.1 Before Modernization 76.2.2 After Modernization 76.3 Present Situation of Iran Water Management System: Crisis Period 76.4 Future of the Water Management in Iran 76.5 Conclusion References Chapter 77: The Need of Biodiversity Conservation Strategies in Iraq: The State of Protected Areas 77.1 Introduction 77.2 Creating Protected Areas in Iraq 77.3 Threats to Protected Areas of Iraq 77.4 Conclusions and Recommendations References Chapter 78: Benthic Macroinvertebrates of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers in Turkey 78.1 Introduction 78.2 Streams and Dam Lakes of the Two Rivers 78.2.1 Tigris (Dicle) River 78.2.2 Euphrates (Frat) River 78.3 Benthic Macroinvertebrate Communities in the Two Rivers of Turkey 78.3.1 Group Mollusca 78.3.2 Group Oligochaeta 78.3.3 Group Ostracoda 78.3.4 Group Hydrachnidia 78.3.5 Group Malacostraca 78.3.6 Group Aquatic Insecta 78.4 The Roles of Benthic Macroinvertebrates and Environmental Effects on Their Distribution in the Basin References Chapter 79: Freshwater Ecosystem Conservation in Iraq: Recommendations for Management 79.1 Introduction 79.2 General Overview of the Conservation Plan 79.3 Recommendations Reference Chapter 80: Utilising Phenotypic Difference to Regulate Protection Value: A Scheme for Application of a Novel Approach to the ... 80.1 Introduction 80.2 Methodology 80.3 Expected Results 80.4 Concluding Remarks References Chapter 81: Hatchery-Reared Fish Stocks Released into the Wild: A Conservation Problem as Seen in a Case Study from Iraq 81.1 Introduction 81.2 The Reasons why Do Hatchery and Wild Fish Differ 81.3 Study Case from the Freshwaters System of Iraq 81.3.1 Data, Sampling, and Statistical Analysis 81.4 Results 81.5 Conclusions References Part VIII: Social Perspectives Chapter 82: Is the Glass Half Empty or Half Full? An Appraisal of the Four Decades of Turkey´s Southeastern Anatolia Project (... 82.1 Introduction 82.2 GAP 82.3 Is the Glass Half Empty or Half Full? 82.3.1 Infrastructural and Economic Dimension 82.3.2 Sociocultural Dimension 82.4 Discussion 82.5 Conclusion References Part IX: Food Security Chapter 83: How Possible to Build Rice-Fish Farming in Iraq in order to Support Food Security Plan: Positive and the Negative ... 83.1 Introduction 83.2 Rice Agriculture in Iraq 83.3 Aquaculture in Iraq 83.4 Socioeconomic Benefits of the Rice-Fish Farming within the Food Security Process 83.5 The Negative Side of the Rice-Fish Farming within the Food Security Process 83.5.1 Economic Problems in Rice-Fish Farming 83.5.1.1 Initial Financial Problems 83.5.1.2 Diet Difficulties in Combined Rice and Fish Culturing Fields 83.5.1.3 Loss of Fish in Combined Rice and Fish Culturing Fields 83.5.1.4 Difficulties of Fish Seed in Rice-Fish Culturing 83.5.1.5 Aquatic Difficulties in Rice-Fish Culturing 83.5.1.6 Biota in Rice-Fish Culturing 83.5.1.7 Deficiency of Information and Skill in Rice-Fish Culturing 83.5.1.8 Deficiency of Oxygen in Combined Rice and Fish Culturing Scheme 83.6 Conclusions References Chapter 84: The Importance of Non-commercial and Small-Sized Fish Species: A Proposal for an Additional Revenue to Iraq 84.1 Introduction 84.2 The General Benefit of the Non-commercial Fish 84.3 The Benefit of Non-commercial Fish for Humans 84.4 The Negligence of the Non-commercial Fish by Human 84.5 Non-commercial Species Utilization 84.5.1 The Effects of the Social System on the Utilization of Non-commercial Species 84.5.2 Processing the Non-commercial Species for the Local and Export Purposes 84.5.3 Production of Fish Protein Concentrates 84.5.3.1 Fishmeal and Fish Protein Concentrate 84.5.3.2 Utilization of Fish Products 84.5.4 Food Hydrocolloids as Additives 84.5.4.1 Surimi 84.5.5 Low-Salt Restructured Products 84.5.6 Non-commercial Small Fish as a Source of Micronutrients 84.6 What Fish Species in Iraq Is a Small-Sized Fish Species and Non-commercial? 84.7 Conclusion References Chapter 85: Sociocultural Aspects Influence Food Consumption Habits in Iraq: Management of Food Security 85.1 Introduction 85.2 Factors Affecting Food Consumption 85.2.1 Income 85.2.2 Food Price 85.2.3 Local Differences 85.2.4 Geographical Differences 85.2.5 Influence of Religious 85.2.6 Food Distribution within the Family 85.2.7 Education 85.3 Conclusion References Chapter 86: A Preliminary Investigation of Determinants of Food Security in Rural Areas of Basrah Province, Iraq 86.1 Introduction 86.2 The Method of Obtaining Data 86.3 Analysis of the Data Collected 86.4 Conclusion References