دانلود کتاب Updates on Myopia. A Clinical Perspective

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Preface Acknowledgments Contents About the Editors 1: Introduction and Overview on Myopia: A Clinical Perspective 1.1 Global Epidemiology 1.2 Pathogenesis of Myopia 1.3 Key Environmental Factors on Myopia 1.4 Genetics of Myopia 1.5 Prevention of the Onset of Myopia 1.6 Understanding Pathologic Myopia 1.7 Imaging in Myopia 1.8 Glaucoma in Myopia 1.9 Management of Myopic Choroidal Neovascularization 1.10 Management of Myopia-Related Retinal Complications 1.10.1 Proposed Adjuncts to Improve Outcome of Macular Hole Surgery 1.11 Management and Control of Myopia in Children References 2: Global Epidemiology of Myopia 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Prevalence of Myopia in Children 2.2.1 Asian Countries 2.2.1.1 East Asian Countries and Singapore 2.2.1.2 Rest of Asian Countries 2.2.2 Non-Asian Countries 2.2.3 Urban and Rural Areas 2.3 Prevalence of Myopia and HM in Teenagers and Young Adults 2.3.1 East Asian Countries 2.3.2 Rest of East Asian Countries 2.4 Prevalence of Myopia and HM in Adults 2.4.1 Asian Countries 2.4.1.1 East Asian Countries 2.4.1.2 Rest of East Asian Countries 2.4.2 Non-Asian Countries 2.4.3 Generational Gap 2.5 The Prevalence of PM 2.6 Conclusion References 3: The Economic and Societal Impact of Myopia and High Myopia 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Economic Impact of Myopia 3.3 Secondary Impact of Myopia from Other Eye Diseases and Sight Loss 3.4 Quality of Life 3.5 Impact of Myopia Treatments on Quality of Life 3.6 Summary References 4: Understanding Myopia: Pathogenesis and Mechanisms 4.1 Emmetropization and Normal Ocular Growth in Human Eyes 4.2 Ocular Biometric Changes in Human Myopia 4.2.1 Cornea 4.2.2 Crystalline Lens and Anterior Chamber Depth 4.2.3 Vitreous Chamber and Axial Length 4.2.4 Choroid 4.2.5 Sclera 4.3 Visual Environment, Emmetropization, and Myopia: Evidence from Animal Models 4.3.1 Form-Deprivation Myopia 4.3.2 Lens Defocus Ametropias 4.3.3 Comparing Form-Deprivation and Lens Defocus 4.4 Other Visual Cues for Emmetropization 4.4.1 Retinal Physiology 4.4.2 Aberrations 4.4.3 Accommodation 4.4.4 Circadian Rhythms 4.5 Effects of Key Environmental Factors on Myopia 4.5.1 Near Work and Education 4.5.2 Urbanization 4.5.3 Light Exposure 4.6 Conclusion References 5: The Genetics of Myopia 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Heritability 5.3 Syndromic Myopia 5.4 Linkage Studies 5.5 Candidate Gene Studies 5.6 Genome-Wide Association Studies 5.7 Pathway Analysis Approaches 5.8 Next Generation Sequencing 5.9 Environmental Influences Through Genetics 5.10 Epigenetics 5.11 Implications for Clinical Management 5.12 Concluding Remarks References 6: Risk Factors for Myopia: Putting Causal Pathways into a Social Context 6.1 Key Issues When Studying Risk Factors for Myopia 6.1.1 Myopia Is Etiologically Heterogeneous 6.1.2 Myopia Is a Developmental Condition 6.1.3 Cycloplegia and Definitions of Myopia: Important Methodological Issues 6.1.4 Myopia: The Importance of Causal Pathways 6.1.5 Statistical Analysis 6.2 The Main Risk Factors for “School Myopia”: Education and Time Outdoors 6.2.1 The Search for Causal Mechanisms for Education 6.2.2 Protection by Time Outdoors 6.3 Other Possible Risk Factors for Myopia 6.3.1 Use of Computers and Smart Phones 6.3.2 Sex 6.3.3 Ethnicity 6.3.4 Parental Myopia 6.3.5 Intelligence 6.3.6 Urban/Rural Differences 6.3.7 Pollution 6.3.8 Housing 6.3.9 Height 6.3.10 Diet 6.3.11 Sleep 6.3.12 Smoking 6.3.13 Birth Order 6.3.14 Season of Birth 6.3.15 Allergic Conjunctivitis: Hay Fever and Kawasaki Disease 6.3.16 Febrile Diseases 6.3.17 Fertility Treatment 6.4 Popular Beliefs About the Causes of Myopia 6.5 Comparing Genetic and Environmental Effects 6.6 Conclusions References 7: Prevention of Myopia Onset 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Onset of Myopia 7.3 Increased Time Outdoors as an Intervention 7.4 Reduced Near Work Intensity as an Intervention 7.5 Optical Interventions 7.6 Eye Exercises of Acupoints 7.7 Future Prospects References 8: Clinical Management and Control of Myopia in Children 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Near Activity and Accommodation 8.2.1 Bifocal and Progressive Addition Spectacles 8.2.2 Atropine 8.3 Peripheral Defocus 8.3.1 Peripheral Myopic Defocus Glasses 8.3.2 Bifocal or Dual-Focus Contact Lenses 8.3.3 Orthokeratology 8.4 Time Spent Outdoors 8.4.1 Environmental Interventions 8.4.2 Higher Light Intensities and Dopamine 8.5 Inheritance and Genetics of Myopia 8.6 Application to Clinical Practice 8.7 Conclusion References 9: Understanding Pathologic Myopia 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Definition of Pathologic Myopia 9.3 Posterior Staphyloma 9.3.1 Definition of Staphyloma by Spaide (Fig. 9.1) 9.3.2 Detection of Posterior Staphyloma 9.3.3 Classification (Ohno-Matsui’s Modified Classification, Fig. 9.3) 9.4 Fundus Complications of Pathologic Myopia 9.4.1 Myopic Chorioretinal Atrophy (META-PM Study, Table 9.1) 9.4.2 Diffuse Chorioretinal Atrophy (Category 2) 9.4.3 Patchy Chorioretinal Atrophy (Category 3) 9.4.4 Lacquer Cracks (Plus Sign) 9.4.5 Myopic CNV and CNV-Related Macular Atrophy 9.5 Myopic Macular Retinoschisis 9.6 Dome-Shaped Macula (DSM) References 10: Imaging in Myopia 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Disease Characteristics of Myopia 10.3 Key Structures Altered in Myopia and Pathological Myopia 10.3.1 Sclera and Collagen 10.3.2 Choroidal Changes 10.3.3 Bruch’s Membrane and Retinal Pigment Epithelium Changes 10.4 Existing Imaging Modalities to Evaluate the Myopic Eye 10.4.1 Optical Coherence Tomography 10.4.2 Ultrasound 10.4.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging 10.5 Challenges in Imaging of the Myopic Eye 10.5.1 Interaction Between Low- and High-Order Aberrations 10.5.2 Challenges in Imaging the Anterior Segment 10.5.3 Challenges in Imaging the Retina 10.5.4 Challenges in Imaging the Choroid and Sclera 10.5.5 Challenges in Imaging the Optic Nerve 10.6 Future Developments References 11: Glaucoma in High Myopia 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Anatomy of the Optic Nerve Head in High Myopia 11.3 Increased Prevalence of Glaucoma in High Myopia and Associated Factors 11.4 Potential Reasons for the Association Between Glaucoma and High Myopia 11.5 Intraocular Pressure and Glaucoma in High Myopia 11.6 Therapy of Glaucoma in High Myopia References 12: Clinical Management of Myopia in Adults: Treatment of Retinal Complications 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Surgical Procedures 12.2.1 Pars Plana Vitrectomy 12.2.1.1 Microincision Vitrectomy Surgery 12.2.1.2 Induction of Posterior Vitreous Detachment 12.2.1.3 Epiretinal Membrane Peeling 12.2.1.4 Internal Limiting Membrane Peeling Full-Thickness Macular Hole Myopic Foveoschisis 12.2.1.5 Gas Tamponade 12.2.2 Additional Measures (Adjuncts) to Improve Outcome of Macular Hole Surgery 12.2.2.1 Endotamponade 12.2.2.2 Inverted Internal Limiting Membrane Flap 12.2.2.3 Autologous Internal Limiting Membrane Transplantation 12.2.2.4 Autologous Blood 12.2.2.5 Lens Capsular Flap Transplantation 12.2.2.6 Macular Buckle 12.2.2.7 Autologous Neurosensory Retinal Transplantation 12.3 Conclusion References 13: Clinical Management of Myopia in Adults: Treatment of Myopic CNV 13.1 Disease Overview 13.2 Incidence and Prevalence 13.3 Natural History 13.4 Risk Factors 13.5 Pathogenesis 13.6 Diagnosis and Monitoring 13.7 Differential Diagnosis 13.7.1 Macular Hemorrhage Secondary to Lacquer Cracks (Fig. 13.2) 13.7.2 Inflammatory CNV 13.7.3 Dome-Shaped Maculopathy with Serous Detachment 13.8 Management 13.8.1 Anti-Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor Drugs 13.9 Ranibizumab 13.10 Aflibercept 13.11 Bevacizumab 13.12 Conbercept 13.13 Factors Related to Treatment Outcomes 13.14 Recurrence 13.15 Treatment Regimen and Follow-Up 13.16 Long-Term Outcomes 13.17 Conclusions References 14: Optical Interventions for Myopia Control 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Spectacle Lenses 14.2.1 Under-Correction of Myopia 14.2.2 Bifocal or Multifocal Spectacles 14.3 Contact Lenses 14.3.1 Rigid Gas Permeable Contact Lenses 14.3.2 Orthokeratology 14.3.3 Soft Bifocal and Multifocal Contact Lenses 14.4 Others: Outdoor Activities and Violet Light Transmitting Lenses 14.5 Comparison of the Effectiveness on Myopia Control by Different Optical Interventions 14.6 Conclusions References Correction to: Optical Interventions for Myopia Control Correction to: M. Ang, T. Y. Wong (eds.), Updates on Myopia, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-8491-2_14