دانلود کتاب Dietary Sugar, Salt and Fat in Human Health

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Cover Dietary Sugar, Salt, and Fat in Human Health Copyright Dedication Contents List of contributors Preface References General background 1 Epidemiological perspectives of dietary sugars, salts and fats 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Dietary sugars 1.2.1 Effects of dietary sugars on body weight and obesity 1.2.2 Effects of dietary sugars on diabetes 1.2.3 Effects of dietary sugars on cardiovascular diseases 1.2.4 Effects of dietary sugars on kidney diseases 1.2.5 Effects of dietary sugars on cancer 1.3 Dietary salt 1.3.1 Effects of dietary salts on blood pressure and cardiovascular diseases 1.3.2 Effects of dietary salts on other diseases 1.4 Dietary fats 1.4.1 Effects of dietary fats on cardiovascular diseases 1.4.2 Effects of dietary fats on cancer 1.4.2.1 Breast cancer 1.4.2.2 Colorectal cancer 1.4.2.3 Prostate cancer 1.4.3 Effects of dietary fats on obesity 1.5 Conclusions References 2 Advancing age, influence of dietary sugars, salts, and fats on chronic diseases and metabolic disorders 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Influence of dietary sugar on diseases in elderly 2.2.1 Chronic diseases 2.2.1.1 Cardiovascular diseases 2.2.1.2 Diabetes 2.2.1.3 Neurological diseases 2.2.2 Metabolic disorders 2.2.3 Other disorders 2.3 Influence of dietary salt on diseases in elderly 2.3.1 Chronic diseases 2.3.1.1 Cardiovascular diseases 2.3.1.1.1 Salt sensitivity and other influential factors 2.3.1.2 Kidney diseases 2.3.1.3 Diabetes 2.3.2 Metabolic disorders 2.3.2.1 Hedonic shift 2.3.2.2 Hyponatraemia 2.3.3 Others disorders 2.4 Influence of dietary fats on diseases in elderly 2.4.1 Chronic diseases 2.4.1.1 Cardiovascular diseases 2.4.1.2 Neurological dysfunctions 2.4.1.2.1 Cognitive dysfunction 2.4.1.2.2 Depression 2.4.1.2.3 Olfactory impairment 2.4.1.2.4 Verbal fluency 2.4.1.3 Diabetes 2.4.1.4 Inflammatory and immune diseases 2.4.1.4.1 Inflammation 2.4.1.4.2 Immune function 2.4.2 Metabolic disorders 2.4.3 Other disorders 2.4.3.1 Frailty 2.4.3.2 Bone mineral density 2.4.3.3 High blood lipid 2.4.3.4 Aging 2.5 Conclusion References 3 Dietary fat, salt, and sugar: a clinical perspective of the social catastrophe 3.1 Introduction 3.1.1 The “fat is harmful theory”: the origins 3.1.2 Fat: dietary recommendations 3.1.3 Total fat 3.1.4 Trans fatty acids 3.1.5 Saturated fats: making sense 3.1.6 Monounstaurated fatty acids 3.1.7 Polyunsaturated fatty acids 3.1.8 n-3 fatty acids 3.1.9 n-6 fatty acids 3.1.10 Dietary cholesterol 3.1.11 Molecular mechanisms of fat-induced insulin resistance and β-cell injury 3.1.11.1 Effect of fat on pancreatic β-cells 3.1.12 The sugar in diet: role of the industry 3.1.13 Sugar intake: how much is safe per day 3.1.14 Consequences of increased sugar intake 3.1.15 Salt intake: what is considered safe and harmful 3.1.16 Where does the salt come from in the food we eat? 3.1.17 Metabolic consequences of excessive salt intake 3.1.17.1 Hypertension 3.1.17.2 Cardiovascular disease 3.1.17.3 Obesity 3.1.17.4 Renal disease 3.2 Conclusions References 4 Influences of food ingredients on enterohepatic circulation of bile acids 4.1 Introduction 4.2 An introduction to bile acids 4.3 Function of bile acids—reasons for serum bile acids 4.4 Relationship of bile acids with intestinal bacteria 4.5 Food ingredients affect the circulation of bile acids References 5 Anemia: influence of dietary fat, sugar, and salt on hemoglobin and blood health 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Dietary fat 5.1.2 Dietary sugar 5.1.3 Dietary salt 5.2 Anemia: disease pathophysiology and prevalence 5.3 Underlying causes of chronic anemia 5.3.1 Mechanisms of pH homeostasis 5.4 Chronic anemia syndrome: a novel concept 5.5 Treatment strategies 5.6 Clinical investigations 5.6.1 VMP35, a liquid noniron-containing multinutrient complex Prodovite 5.7 Clinical investigation 5.7.1 Study participants and ethical approval 5.7.2 Protocol of the clinical investigation 5.7.3 Findings of the investigation 5.7.4 Phase contrast microscopy 5.8 Case studies 5.8.1 Case study #1 5.8.2 Case study #2 (information as provided by permission of Gideon L. King) 5.9 Summary and conclusion Acknowledgments References Further reading Food behavior, food addiction and metabolic syndrome 6 Sensory drivers of food behavior 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Sensory conception and the regulation of dietary intake 6.2.1 Visual signals 6.2.2 Aroma 6.2.3 Flavor 6.2.4 Texture 6.3 Sensory experience of food and obesity 6.4 Sensory features and energy content dilution 6.5 Understanding nutrition-related behaviors 6.6 Early drivers on the establishment of food preferences 6.6.1 Olfactory and gustatory systems progression 6.6.2 Biological impacts on food preferences 6.6.3 Food neophobia 6.6.4 Social influences on food preferences 6.7 Sensory-specific satiety 6.8 Conclusion References 7 Focusing the fight against processed food addiction 7.1 Background 7.2 Results 7.3 Discussion 7.4 Conclusions Conflict of interest Authors’ contributions Acknowledgments and funding References 8 Dietary influences on pediatric obesity and metabolic syndrome 8.1 Background 8.2 Dietary carbohydrates and carbohydrate-restricted diets 8.3 Glycemic index 8.4 Mediterranean diet 8.5 Dietary fiber 8.6 Fructose and high-fructose corn syrup 8.7 Dietary fat and low-fat diets 8.8 Trans-unsaturated fatty acids/trans fats 8.9 Dietary protein and high-protein diets 8.10 Branched-chain amino acids 8.11 Calorie-restricted diets 8.12 Vitamin D 8.13 Current recommendations on staged management 8.14 Conclusions References 9 An overview of addiction to sugar 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 The history of sugar 9.1.2 How does high sugar-containing diets or drinks promote overeating and obesity? 9.2 Sugar cravings and “sweet tooth”: as ancient as man? 9.2.1 The concept of sugar addiction 9.2.1.1 Sugar addiction: fact or fallacy 9.2.2 Sugars, sugar metabolism, and the brain 9.2.2.1 Sugars and the brain reward system 9.2.2.2 Sugar: hedonic response and associated reward 9.2.2.2.1 Fructose versus glucose: flavor preferences and hedonic response 9.2.3 Can nonnutritive sweeteners potentiate sugar addiction? 9.2.4 The gut–brain axis and sugar addiction 9.2.4.1 Gut microbiome, cravings and sugar addiction 9.2.5 Sugar addiction and the management of obesity and related dysmetabolism 9.3 Conclusion References Dietary sugar and health 10 Influence of dietary sugars on blood pressure regulation: historical, epidemiological, laboratory, and clinical consider... Abbreviations 10.1 Introduction 10.2 General information concerning the “high blood pressures epidemic” 10.3 Dietary differences between modern and primitive cultures: focus on carbohydrates 10.4 Ecological perspective associating dietary sugar with age-related blood pressure elevation in the acculturated societies 10.5 Historical background implying injury from dietary sugars particularly during the Yudkin Era 10.6 Basics concerning the role carbohydrates and their metabolism play in blood pressure perturbations 10.6.1 General background 10.6.2 Focus on absorption: glycemic index and load 10.6.3 Fructose 10.7 United States carbohydrate intake over the preceding century and beyond 10.8 Laboratory and clinical studies examining through the early decades the role of sugar consumption in blood pressure re... 10.8.1 Overview 10.8.2 1960s 10.8.3 1970s 10.8.4 1980s 10.8.5 Following three decades (1990, 2000, and 2010) 10.9 Correlation between insulin resistance and elevated blood pressure 10.10 Is there important interaction between dietary sugars and salt? References 11 Glycation-induced protein aggregation and cellular toxicity: an insight into the disease realm of high dietary sugar intake 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Sources of advanced glycation end product 11.3 Stages in the formation of advanced glycation end product 11.4 Advanced glycation end product–mediated pathogenesis 11.5 Cellular targets of glycation 11.6 Glycation-induced cellular toxicity is mostly mediated by advanced glycation end product-protein adducts 11.6.1 Protein cross-linking and aggregation 11.6.2 Binding of AGE adducts to specific receptor for AGE expressed on macrophages and other cells: the AGE–RAGE signaling... 11.6.3 Induction of amyloidogenic pathway: the long-standing debate regarding role of glycation 11.7 Receptor for advanced glycation end product pathway as a cellular defense to counteract the recalcitrant amyloid fibrils 11.8 Inhibition of advanced glycation end product accumulation: natural therapeutics versus synthetic formulations 11.9 Conclusions 11.10 Acknowledgments 11.11 Conflict of interest References 12 Probing various pro and con health aspects of the glucose–insulin system in non-diabetics: focusing on insulin resistanc... 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Background 12.3 Principle 1: trade-off in the glucose–insulin system 12.4 Principle 2: surrogates for insulin resistance 12.5 Principle 3: awareness of continuum of risks is extremely valuable 12.6 Principle 4: the aging paradox for fasting blood glucose levels insulin resistance may provide an interesting lesson t... 12.7 Principle 5: the old-fashion advice to eat and exercise properly is more important than ever References 13 Evaluating proposed surrogates to estimate insulin resistance in non-diabetics: emphasizing the ratio triglycerides/HDL-... Abbreviations 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Material and methods 13.2.1 Correlation data 13.2.2 General study procedures 13.2.3 Body composition 13.2.4 Blood chemistries 13.2.5 Statistical analyses 13.3 Results 13.3.1 Correlation of quartiles 13.4 Discussion References 14 Associations of high blood sugar with oxidative stress and inflammation in patients with type 2 diabetes 14.1 Introduction 14.2 Association of high blood sugar with oxidative stress in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus 14.2.1 Reactive oxygen and nitrogen species in type 2 diabetes mellitus 14.2.2 Defense systems against free radicals in type 2 diabetes mellitus 14.2.3 Hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress in type 2 diabetes mellitus 14.2.3.1 Protein kinase C pathway 14.2.3.2 Polyol pathway 14.2.3.3 Hexosamine pathway 14.2.3.4 Advanced glycosylation end products 14.2.3.5 Metabolic products of reactive oxygen species as biomarkers in type 2 diabetes mellitus 14.2.3.5.1 Lipid peroxidation 14.2.3.5.2 Oxidative damage of proteins 14.2.3.5.3 Oxidative damage of DNA 14.3 Association of high blood sugar with inflammation in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus 14.3.1 Inflammation and an immune response 14.3.2 Inflammatory markers as predictors of type 2 diabetes mellitus development 14.3.3 Hyperglycemia, inflammatory response, and oxidative stress in diabetic patients 14.3.4 Mechanisms of high glucose-mediated inflammation in human monocytes 14.4 Conclusions References 15 Assessing the triglyceride/HDL-cholesterol ratio as a surrogate for insulin resistance and its link to the metabolic syn... Abbreviations 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Material and methods 15.2.1 Correlation data 15.2.2 General study procedures 15.2.3 Body composition 15.2.4 Blood chemistries 15.2.5 Statistical analyses 15.3 Results 15.4 Discussion 15.5 Conclusions References 16 The benefit of Indian jaggery over sugar on human health 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Composition of jaggery 16.3 Nutritional content of jaggery 16.4 Production of jaggery 16.5 Types of jaggery 16.5.1 Liquid jaggery 16.5.2 Granular or powder jaggery 16.5.3 Solid jaggery (cube shape) 16.6 Phytochemical profile of jaggery 16.7 Medicinal benefit of jaggery 16.7.1 Analgesic activity 16.7.2 Antihepatotoxic activity 16.7.3 Antihyperglycemic activity 16.7.4 Diuretic activity 16.7.5 Acetylcholine release 16.7.6 Antiinflammatory effect 16.7.7 Antihypercholesterolemic effect 16.7.8 Antithrombotic activity 16.8 Sugar and its classification 16.9 Sugar consumption in India 16.10 Health effect and sugar consumption 16.11 Conclusions References 17 Linking fasting blood glucose quartiles of nondiabetic volunteers ages 21–84 years to metabolic syndrome components: foc... Abbreviations 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Material and methods 17.2.1 Correlation data 17.2.2 General study procedures 17.2.3 Blood chemistries 17.2.4 Statistical analyses 17.3 Results 17.4 Discussion References Overindulgence of dietary salt 18 Salt-induced inappropriate augmentation of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system in chronic kidney disease Abbreviations 18.1 Introduction 18.2 Epidemiology of chronic kidney disease 18.3 Risk factors of chronic kidney disease 18.3.1 Genetic components 18.3.2 Gender 18.3.3 Ethnicity 18.3.4 Age 18.3.5 Smoking 18.3.6 Socioeconomic status 18.3.7 Obesity 18.3.8 Glomerulonephritis 18.3.9 Diabetes mellitus 18.3.10 Hypertension 18.4 Pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease 18.4.1 Role of renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system system in pathogenesis of chronic kidney disease 18.4.1.1 Secondary messenger system 18.4.1.2 Physiological distribution of angiotensin type 1 18.4.1.3 Physiological role 18.4.2 Role of colloid oncotic pressure in chronic kidney disease 18.4.3 Role of transforming growth factor-beta in chronic kidney disease 18.5 Effect of salt on chronic kidney disease 18.5.1 Effect of salt on renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system 18.5.2 Effect of salt on transforming growth factor-beta 18.6 Proper amount of salt intake 18.7 Conclusion References 19 Table salt (sodium chloride): vital aspects of metabolism and blood pressure regulation in health and disease 19.1 Background 19.2 Sodium balance 19.3 Total body stores of sodium and potassium 19.4 Preservation of body fluid 19.5 Perturbations associated with volume 19.6 Electrolyte problems of the modern western diet 19.7 Focusing on dietary electrolyte content 19.8 INTERSALT, INTERMAP, TOHP II, and DASH 19.8.1 INTERSALT 19.8.2 INTERMAP 19.8.3 Trials of hypertension prevention II 19.8.4 Dietary approach to stop hypertension 19.9 Salt sensitivity 19.9.1 General overview 19.9.2 Genetic implications 19.9.3 Exogenous factor implications: focus on potassium and sugars 19.9.3.1 Potassium 19.9.3.2 Dietary sugars: sucrose, high-fat corn syrup, fructose 19.10 Conclusion References Further reading 20 Nutraceuticals and functional foods in the prevention of hypertension induced by excessive intake of dietary salt 20.1 Introduction 20.2 Classification of hypertension and the risk factors 20.3 Pathophysiology of hypertension 20.4 Oxidative stress 20.5 Inflammation 20.6 Immunomodulation (immune dysfunction) 20.7 Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system and its involvement in hypertension 20.8 The link between dietary salt (sodium chloride) and other minerals with hypertension 20.9 Sodium (Na+) 20.10 The overall mechanism of dietary salt–induced hypertension 20.11 Other major minerals involved in hypertension 20.12 The current treatment regimen for hypertension (antihypertension medications) 20.13 Standard antihypertensive drugs 20.14 Dietary approach for management of hypertension 20.15 Alternative therapy for the management of hypertension and its related complications (natural therapy) 20.16 Dietary fibers 20.17 Probiotics (prebiotics) and fermented milk products 20.18 Soybean products (protein/peptide) 20.19 Fish oil (omega-3-polyunsaturated fatty acids) 20.20 Co Q10 (vitamin-like antioxidant) 20.21 l-Arginine 20.22 Grape and its related products 20.23 Green tea or green tea catechins 20.24 Garlic (Allium sativum) 20.25 Beetroot juice (Beta vulgaris) 20.26 Hawthorn 20.27 Conclusions References Further reading Dietary fat and cholesterol 21 Physiological role of cholesterol in human body 21.1 Introduction 21.1.1 Chemistry/structure of cholesterol 21.1.2 Cholesterol biosynthesis 21.2 Lipids and lipoproteins 21.2.1 Chemistry of proteins 21.2.2 Apolipoproteins 21.3 Lipoprotein metabolism 21.3.1 Lipoprotein receptors and lipid transporter 21.3.2 Enzyme and transfer proteins 21.3.3 Exogenous pathways 21.3.4 Endogenous pathway 21.3.5 Reverse cholesterol transport 21.4 Physiology of cholesterol 21.4.1 Intracellular cholesterol regulation 21.4.2 Cholesterol and membrane structure 21.4.3 Cholesterol in embryonic and fetal development 21.4.4 Cholesterol metabolism in brain 21.4.5 Cholesterol in retina 21.4.6 Cholesterol—essential for life 21.5 Pathophysiology—dyslipidemia 21.5.1 Increased free fatty acids 21.5.2 Increased triglycerides 21.5.3 Small dense low-density lipoprotein 21.5.4 Low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol 21.6 Clinical implications 21.6.1 Risk for cardiovascular disease 21.7 Summary/conclusions References Further reading 22 Interplay between dietary sugars and fats and insulin resistance 22.1 Introduction 22.2 Insulin signaling pathway 22.3 Insulin resistance 22.4 Sugar and insulin resistance 22.5 Fats and insulin resistance 22.5.1 Saturated fatty acids and insulin resistance 22.5.2 Monounsaturated fatty acids and insulin resistance 22.6 Clinical evidences 22.7 Conclusion References 23 Erythrocyte membranes in metabolic and neurological diseases—supplementation with fatty acids and membranes remodeling Abbreviations 23.1 Introduction 23.2 Remodeling of lipid bilayer in red blood cells 23.3 The role of fatty acids in metabolic disorders 23.4 The role of erythrocyte membrane fatty acids in neurological diseases 23.5 Supplementation with fatty acids References Dietary fiber, ketogenic diets, and benefits 24 Dietary fiber: a functional food ingredient with physiological benefits 24.1 Introduction 24.2 Definition and classification of fiber 24.3 Technological functionality of dietary fiber 24.4 Health benefits of dietary fiber 24.4.1 Serum cholesterol management 24.4.2 Dietary fiber and type-2 diabetes 24.4.3 Dietary fiber, gut health, and cancer 24.4.4 Dietary fiber and weight reduction 24.5 Potential undesirable effects of dietary fiber 24.6 Regulations and health claims 24.7 Fiber recommendations and intakes 24.8 Conclusion References Further reading 25 The ketogenic diet in health and disease 25.1 Introduction 25.2 Physiology of the ketosis 25.3 Ketogenic diets for weight loss in obesity 25.4 Ketogenic diet for the management of diabetes 25.5 Ketogenic diets for the treatment of dyslipidemia, hypertension, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease, and cardiovascular ... 25.5.1 Dyslipidemia 25.5.2 Hypertension 25.5.3 Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease 25.5.4 Overall mortality 25.6 Ketogenic diets for the treatment of neurological conditions 25.6.1 Epilepsy 25.6.2 Cognitive impairment 25.7 Ketogenic diets in cancer 25.8 Ketogenic diets in polycystic ovarian syndrome 25.9 Conclusions References 26 Dietary fat, salt, and sugar—a teenager’s view References Appendix Commentary: From the Editor’s desk Reflecting on changes in nutritional risk factors over time References Index Back Cover